363  Eg' 

'SMYTHE'S  SCHOOL  GRAMMAR.! 


''V 


OUR  OWN 


SCHOOL  GRAMMAR, 


DESIGNED   FOR 


rl 


OUR  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES, 


AS  A  SEQUEL  TO  THE    "PRIMART  GRAMMAR.' 


By  CHARLES  W.  SMYTHE,  A.  M ., 

PRINCIPAL  01  THE  LEXINGTON  ENGLISH  AND  CLASSICAL  SCHOOL, 
AND  AUTI'OR  OF    "OUR  OWN  PRIMARY  GRAMMAR." 


GREENSBOROUGH,  N.  C. 
STERLING  &  CAMPBELL. 
Richmond,  Va.,  W.  Hakgrave  White. 
Charleston.  S.  C  ,  McCarter  *  Dawson 


il  1862.  $ 


DUKE 

UNIVERSITY 

LIBRARY 


Treasure  %qom 


0     . 


SMYTHE'S  SCHOOL  GRAMMAR. 


OUR  OWN 


SCHOOL  GRAMMAR, 


DESIGNED    FOR 


OUR  SCHOOLS  AND  ACADEMIES, 


AS  A  SEQUEL  TO  THE  "PRIMARY  GRAMMAR.' 


By  CHARLES  W.  SMYTHE,  A,  M., 

rm>'cirAL  of  tub  Lexington  English  and  classical  iCHOui . 

AND    AUTHOR   OF    "  OUR    OWN    PRIMARY    GRAVMAR." 


137.539 


GREENSBOROUGn,  N.  C, 

STERLING,  CAMPBELL  &  ALBRIGHT. 

RICHMOND,  VA. — W.  HARGRAVE    WHITE. 
CHARLESTON,  S.  C. — M'CARTER  AND  DAWSON. 

1862.      • 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress, 
tntthe  year   one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty-tvro,  br 

CHAS.  W.  SMYTHE, 

h»  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  in  the  District  of 
Pamlico  and  State  oi  North  •"arolina. 


STRCTIISR    &  :•  INTERS, 

!  i.  vitfH,  N.  0. 


///*/*-*        :-'  -fcft       *i 


*&*—^  -r^&* 


*3^ 


PREFACE. 


■ 


I  offer  this  book  to  mv  fellow-teachers  and 
the  public,  as  a  sequel  to  my  Primary  Gram- 
mar. While  better  adapted  to  follow  that  book 
in  regular  course,  it  has  been  so  arranged  that 
it  may  be  used  independently. 

My  object  in  its  preparation  has  been  to  co- 
operate in  supplying  a  home  literature,  and  to 
meet  an  immediate  and  pressing  demand  in  our 
schools. 

I  have  endeavored  to  combine  the  staple  of 
our  common  books  with  the  results  attained 
by  the  laborers  in  the  higher  departments  of 
philological  science,  as  well  as  in  the  special 
held  of  the  English  language;  and  to  make  v, 
conform,  as  far  as  fitness  would  allow,  to  the 
highest  standard  reached. 

The  past  thirty  \  ears  has  been  marked  abroad 
by  an  enthusiastic,  laborious,  and  thorough 
study  of  all  the  facts  of  language,  and  very  much 
has  been  accomplished. 

1  have  endeavored,  as  far  as  possible,  to  mak* 
myself  acquainted  with  the  frui-ts  of  those  la- 
bor*. 1  have  not  aimed  at  innovation,  but 
wJ»(*N*Yftr  a  fact  or  a  term  hn*    become  weH  <**- 

A37539 


IV  PREFACE. 

toblished,  and  bears  the  evidence  of  truth  upon 
it,  scientific  honesty  warrants  and  demands  its 
admission. 

I  have  made  free  use  of  the  best  works  of 
American,  English,  and  German  authors. 

While  I  have  aimed  at  simplicity  and  clear- 
ness of  statement  I  have  not  undertaken  to 
write  an  easy  book,  though  I  trust  it  will  not 
be  found  a  difficult  one.  My  object  has  been, 
not  only  to  impart  information,  but  to  awaken 
1  bought  and  stimulate  to  farther  study. 

For  that  reason  I  have  referred  sparingly  but 
generally  to  our  Saxon  original,  and  have  dis- 
i  ussed  briefly  some- of  the  points  in  the  philos- 
ophy of  language. 

Language  is  not  only  the  product  and  vehicle 
of  thought,  but  one  of  its  highest  objects;  and 
whatever  treats  of  it. should  have  that  idea 
elearly  in  view. 

What  I  have  already  done  only  makes  me 
more  conscious  of  my  own  weakness  and  igno- 
rance. I  commit  this  book  to  my  fellow-teaeh- 
•rs.  asking  them  to  point  out  freely  all  errors, 
either  in  conception  or  execution,  that  their 
knowledge  or  experience  may  dictate,  assuring 
lb  em  that  their  suggestions  will  receive  a  thought- 
ful and  careful  consideration. 

Owing  to  the  difficulties  of  our  situation,  the 


£ 


*>      ♦  '*  4 


IREFA6E.  V 

mechanical  dress  of  the  book  will  of  necessity 
be  irferior  to  that  of  northern  publications. 

Every  possible  improvement  will   be  mad* 
hereafter. 

CHAS.  W.  SMYTHE. 

Lexington,  N.  C,  Jan.  1862. 


THE  ORIGIX 

OF    TIIK 

ENGLISH   LAJNTGUA.GIL 


Tub  English  language  is  the  language  ol  tht 
larger  portion  of  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and 
their  descendants  in  both  hemispheres. 

It  was  not  the  original  language  of  Britain  and 
never  has  been  spoken  by  all  the  British  peoplt 
at  any  one  time. 

There  are  besides  now  existing,  the  Welsh  ie 
Wales,  the  Irish  in  Ireland,  the  Gaelic  in  Scot- 
land, and  the  Manks  in  the  Isle  of  Man. 

The  earliest  people  of  Britain,  that  we  know  of, 
were  the  Celts,  related  to  the  earliest  inhabitants 
of  France,  and  the  ancestors  of  the  Welsh. 

The  Romans  conquered  the  larger  part  of  the  in- 
land between  55  B.  C,  and  80  A.  D.,  and  held  it 
nearly  500  years. 

They  built  cities,  temples,  theatres,  baths,  and 
paved  roads,  and  introduced  quite  a  degree  of  civ- 
ilization. How  much  they  aifected  the  language 
of  Britain  wo  cannot  tell,  as  no  work  of  that  da? 
remains.  It  is  probable  that  the  language  of  the 
common  people  was  changed  but  little.  A  few 
traces  are  found  in  the  names  of  places;  as,  toln 
in  Lincoln,  from  colotna  a  colony;  street  from  str*- 


8  THE    ORIGIN    07 

turn  a  paved  way ;  Chester  and  cestcr  from  castrum  ft 
camp,  as  in  Dorchester,  Lancaster,  &c. 

About  the  end  of  the  third  century  after  Christ, 
the  coasts  of  Britain  began  to  be  infested  by  a  race 
of  marauding  seamen  from  the  coasts  of  Germany, 
who  seem  to  have  been  known  under  the  name  of 
Saxons  from  the  short  sword  they  carried,  called 
a  seax. 

They  were  first,  the  Frisians,  who  lived  in  the 
North  of  Holland  and  along  the  coast  as  far  as  the 
Elbe.  They  were  tributary  to  the  Saxons,  who 
lived  in  the  vallies  of  the  Ems,  the  Weser,  and 
the  Elbe. 

Third,  the  Angles,  who  now  lived  in  southern 
Denmark  and  about  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe.  Lastly 
the  Jutes  from  Jutland  in  the  Danish  peninsula. 

When  the  Romans  were  compelled  to  withdraw 
from  Britain  to  defend  their  own  homes,  the  Brit- 
ons were  exposed  to  the  inroads  of  their  northern 
neighbors.  They  are  said  to  have  called  in  the 
aid  of  Jutish  leaders  and  to  have  given  them,  as  a 
reward,  the  island  of  Thanet.  However  this  may 
have  been,  the  pressure  of  the  Northmen  seem* 
to  have  been  the  principal  cause  that  sent  the 
Angles  and  Saxons  from  their  homes. 

Calling  others  to  their  aid,  the  Jutish  leaders 
turned  upon  the  Britons  and  after  it  hard  struggle 
established  the  kingdom  of  Kent. 

During  the  next  hundred  years,  five  other  suc- 
cessful invasions  were  made  ;  three  by  Saxons,  in 
Sussex,  Wessex,  and  Essex;  that  is,  South  Saxons, 
West  Saxons,  and  East  Saxons;  and  two  by  An- 
gles  in  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  England. 


THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE.  W 

The  Britons  made  a  determined  resistance,  and 
those  who  were  not  conquered  and  made  slaves, 
fled  to  the  west  of  England,  of  which  they  held 
possession  for  a  long  time. 

The  Britons  were  a  more  civilized  people  than 
their  conquerors,  and  many  of  the  names  of  things 
in  every  day  life  come  from  them,  such  as  basket, 
barrow,  button,  bran,  crock,  gusset,  darn  (a  patch), 
fleam,  flannel,  flaw,  funnel,  gown,  hem.,  mop,  pan,  rail, 
rimj  ridge,  $c.  Many  low  terms,  such  as  fudge, 
spree,  sham,  bully,  are  of  the  same  origin  and  show 
their  servile  condition.  The  Saxons  fixed  their 
language  upon  the  country  they  conquered,  while 
the  British,  except  in  these  traces,  disappeared. 

Nearly  three  centuries  had  passed,  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  had  become  Christians  and  were  settling 
down  into  one  nation,  when  the  Northmen  ap- 
peared on  their  coasts.  They  were  connected  with 
them  in  race,  spoke  a  language  resembling  theirs. 
and  were  pagan  pirates  as  they  had  once  been. 
They  were  the  Danes,  Norwegians,  and  Swedes. 

They  infested  the  shores  of  the  British  islands, 
France,  Germany,  and  Russia. 

In  the  reign  of  Alfred  they  acquired  possession 
of  all  the  north  and  east  of  England,  from  which 
they  were  never  entirely  driven.  Their  part  of 
England  was  called  Danelagh,  or  the  Danes'  com. 
munity,  and  was  hounded  on  the  southwest  by  the 
AVatling  Street,  an  old  Roman  road,  running  from 
London  to  Chester.*  Under  Canute  they  ruled 
all  England  26  years. 

•Students'  Hume,  p.  44, 


10  TItE   ORIGIN   0* 

They  exerted  a  wide  influence  npon  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  language,  and  the  form  that  grew  up  in  the 
north  of  England  is  called  Dano-Saxon. 

There  were  two  forms  prevailing  heforc,  the 
West  Saxon,  the  language  of  the  people  of  Alfred, 
and  the  Angliau,  which  prevailed  in  the  north 
of  England;  both  with  an  extensive  literature. 

The  next  change  resulted  from  the  introduction 
of  the  Normans  and  the  Norman-French  language. 

The  Northmen  under  the  son  of  a  Norwe*gian 
earl  had  taken  possession  of  the  north  of  France, 
which  was  called  from  tkem  Normandy.  They 
gave  up  their  own  language,  the  Norse,  the  pres- 
ent language  of  Iceland,  and  adopted  the  French. 
Among  them  the  northern  French  flourished  in 
its  greatest  purit}^. 

They  subdued  England  under  William  the  Con- 
queror in  106G. 

To  the  haughty  Normans,  the  Saxons  were  a 
despised  and  enslaved  race,  and  their  language  a 
barbarous  idiom.  They  endeavored  to  make  their 
language,  the  language  of  England.  It  did  become 
the  language  of  law,  of  war,  of  the  courts,  and 
schools. 

The  common  people  held  fast  hold  upon  their 
ancient  language,  and  the  struggle  lasted  for  two 
hundred  years.  Finally,  when  the  Normans  lost 
their  French  possessions,  they  settled  down  a- 
mong  their  Saxon  subjects,  and  from  the  un- 
ion thus  arising  the  English  people  and  language 
arose.  ;• 

The  Saxous  furnished  the  larger  part  of  the 
words,  the  Normans  stripped  them  of  their  end- 


TUB    ENGLISH    LANGVAGB.  11 

ings,  and  brought  them  to  a  form  resembling  their 
present  condition. 

The  English  is  the  result  of  a  mixture  of  lan- 
guages, [moulded  by  the  lapse  of  time,  and  the 
struggle  between  discordant  elements. 

There  is  first,  the  Celtic  element.  This  con- 
sists of  words  derived  by  the  Saxons  from  their 
Celtic  subjects  and  neighbors,  and  of  words,  few 
in  number,  introduced  during  later  periods. 

Second,  the  German  .element,  introduced 
first,  through  the  Saxon,  Angle,  Jute,  and  Frisian 
invaders,  forming  the  bulk  of  the  language;  se- 
condly, through  the  influence  of  modern  German 
literature  and  science. 

Third,  the  Northern  or  Scandinavian 
clement.  This  is  akin  to  the  other  and  introduced 
by  invasion  and  long  contact.  Its  influence  hai 
been  greater  upon  the  grammar  than  upon  the 
vocabulary  of  the  language.  , 

Fourth,  the  Latin  element,  introduced  first, 
by  the  Romans;  secondly,  by  the  early  missiona- 
ries ;  thirdly,  by  the  study  and  imitation  of  Latin 
literature;  fourthly,  throughLatin  scientific  terms; 
and  lastly  and  largely,  through  the  Norman- 
French. 

Fifth,  the  Greek  element,  introduced  by  the 
study  of  Greek  literature,  by  the  use  of  Greek  sci- 
entific terms,  and  by  the  fise  of  the  language  in 
the  early  Christian  church. 

Sixth,  the  French  element,  introduced  by  th« 
"Normans,  by  social  intercourse,  the  influence  of 
literature,  fashion,  and  science. 


12         TIIE   ORIGIN    OF   THE    EXGUSII    LANGUAGE. 

Finally,  it  has  borrowed  words  from  every  lan- 
"•uasre  with  which  it  has  come  in  contact. 

In  all  its  history  it  has  never  been  a  simple  lan- 
guage, but  an  a^ore^ate  of  elements  continually 
enlarging  and  struggling  for  unity. 

From  its  peculiar  structure  ifc  is  able  to  seize 
and  appropriate  to  itself  the  peculiar  riches  of  all 
languages,  and  has  reached  a  wonderful  degree  of 
flexibility  and  power,  which  makes  it  a  mighty 
instrument  among  the  nations  of  the  earth. 

Among  educated  people  the  language  is  spoken 
and  written  with  but  slight  variation  from  London 
to  Australia,  and  from  Quebec  to  San  Francisco. 
Among  the  common  people  in  England  there  is 
much  diversity  in  language,  arising  from  diversity 
in  settlement  just  mentioned,  and  from  local  causes. 

It  should  be  felt  as  a  high  .obligation  resting 
upon  every  member  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  family  to 
do  away  as  much  as  possible  with  these  local 
peculiarities,  and  make  the  language  of  our  Eng- 
lish Bible,  that  most  potent  instrument  of  good 
that  has  evel*  existed  in  any  literature,  one  and  the 
tame  wherever  it  is  spoken. 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 


INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  NATURE  AND  SUBDIVISIONS  OF  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Grammar  is  the  science  of  language. 

Language  is  composed  of  w o  r  cl  s ,  ■  and  com- 
binations of  words  in  propositions  and 
sentences. 

2.  A  proposition  is  a  collection  of  words 
making  a  simple  assertion  ;  as,  "Truth  is  eternal." 

3.  A  sentence  consists  of  one  proposition, 
or  two  or  more  united  together;  as,  "I  was  read- 
ing when  you  came." 

4.  Grammar  treats  of  the  various  relations 
that  words  have  to  each  other,  and  the  mode3  by 
which  those  relations  are  expressed. 

It  treats  also  of  the  history,  origin,  and 
formation  of  words;  of  their  elements,  wheth- 
er sounds  or  letters,  of  the  laws  of  verse,  and 
of  correctness  and  propriety  in  speaking  and 
writing. 

5.  The  relations  of  words  to  each  other  are 
shown   either  by   certain    endings    called    in- 


14  INTRODUCTION   TO   ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

flections,  by  the  position  of  iv&rds,  or   by   certain 
helping  words. 

Thus  in  Johns  haU  the  relation  of  John  to  hat  is 
shown  by  the  inflection,  's.  In  "John  struck  James," 
it  is  shown  by  position'^  and  in  "He  may  come  to 
me,"  it  is  shown  by  the  helping  words  may  and  to. 

The  method  by  inflection  was  once  more  usual  in  our 
language  than  it  is  now.  The  loss  of  the  Saxon  inflections 
was  one  of  the  great  changes  resulting  from  the  influence 
of  the  Norman  French. 

6.  Words  are  of  two  kinds  spoken,  and  w  r  i  t- 
t  e  n.  Spoken  words  are  certain  sounds  made  use 
of  to  express  our  ideas. 

Written  words  consist  of  characters  used  to  rep- 
resent those  sounds. 

7.  Grammar  contains  five  parts ;  Phonology, 
Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and 
Prosody. 

Phonology  treats  of  sounds  ;  Orthogra- 
p  h  y  ,  of'  letters,  and  other  characters  made  use 
of  in  expressing  sounds;  Etymology,  of  the 
origin  and  forms  of  words;  Syntax,  of  their 
correct  arrangement  in  sentences  and  their  rela- 
tions to  each  other  there;  Prosody,  of  the 
quantity  of  syllables  and  the  laws  of  yerse. 


PHONOLOGY.  1& 


PAET  FIKST. 


PHONOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  II. 

8.  P  h  o  n  o  1  o  gy  is  the  science  of  sounds. 
Words  when  spoken  consist  of  sounds,  either 

singly  as  a,  ah,  oh;  or  of  several  simple  sound;, 
united  together;  as  in  lamp. 

9.  Sounds  are  produced  by  the  passage  of 
the  breath  through  the  organs  of  s  p  e  e  c  h . 

The  organs  of  s  p  e  e  c  h  are  two  membranes 
at  the  head  of  the  windpipe  called  the  vocal 
chords,  the  upper  part  of  the  throat,  the  soft  pal- 
ate,  the  palate,  and  the  teeth,  gums,  lips,  and  tongue. 

The  tongue  from   its  flexibility  enters   into   the  forma- 
tion of   every    sound  and   from    its   Latin   name   / 
through  the  French  langage,  our  word  language  comes. 

•  10.  When  we  speak,  the  vocal  chords  are  tight- 
ened; the  stream  of  breath  strikes  upon  them, 
puts  them  in  vibration  and  produces  a  sound. 

This  is  variously  modified  in  its  passage  through 
the  other  organs  and  thus  all  the  various  soun 
are  produced. 

These  organs  are  affected  by  climate,  habit,  and  use, 
that  nations  differ  in  their  sounds  so  much  that  it  is  some- 
times very  difficult  to  sneak  a  foreign  lnnirua^e. 


IS  PHONOLOGY. 

11.  The  sounds  thus. produced  are  divided  into 
two  classes ;  vowels,  and  consonants.         . 

A  vowel  sound  is  produced  when  the  breath 
passes  through  the  organs  without  obstruction. 

A  Consonant  sound  is  produced  by  closing 
more  or  less  the  organs  of  speech. 

In  forming  the  vowels  the  organs  may  be  looked  upon  as 
a  tube,  which  may  be  expanded  or  contracted,  lengthened 
or  shortened ;  while  in  forming  the  consonants,  the  same 
tube  may  be  regarded  as  wholly,  or  partially  closed  and 
opened  again. 

12.  The  different  vowel  sounds  are  formed  by 
placing  the  organs  in  different  positions  and  sen- 
ding the  voice  through  them. 

They  are  sounds  heard  in  fate,  far,  fall,  fat, mete, 
met,  fine,  pin,  note,  move,  not,  use,  full,  but,  oil, 
house. 

The  consonant  r  modifies  certain  of  these 
sounds;  as  in  air,  fair,  there,  ihei^,  which  are  classed 
with  a  in  fate,  but  which,  for  that  reason,  differ 
slightly  from  it. 

Besides  these  there  is  an  unmodified  vowel  sound 
heard  after  a  final  consonant  or  between  two  con- 
sonants ;  as,  in  cl-m,  ri/th-m,  sclus-m. 

It  is  formed  by  opening  the  organs  and  allow- 
ing the  sound  to  pass  through.  It  is  heard  in  but, 
bird,  lull.  All  vowel  sounds  tend  to  pass  into  it ; 
as,  beggar,  offer,  bird,  work,  but. 

13.  The  vowel  sounds  are  of  two  kinds,  sira- 
p  1  e,  and  compound  or  d  i  p  h  thongs. 

14.  The  simple  vowels  are  those,  which, 
when  prolonged,  preserve  the  sound  unchanged  ; 
as  in  arm,  eve. 


THE   VOWELS.  ll 

They  are  a  in  arm,  all,  at ;  e  in  eve,  met;  i  in 
pin;  o  in  move,  not;  urn  full,  huh 

15.  The  diphthongs  are  those  sounds  which  com- 
mence with  one  element  and  end  with  another ;  as, 
i  in  pine,  which  commences  with  the  sound  of  a 
in  fat  and  ends  with  i  in  pin  or  the  semivow. 
el  y. 

16.  In  forming  diphthongs  the  vowel  elements 
a,  e,  o,  unite  with  i  and  u.  A,  e  and  o  are  the  ini- 
tial elements  ;  i  and  u,  the  final. 

17.  English  diphthongs  are  of  two  classes;  those 
that  are  expressed  by  one  letter,  and  those  that  are 
expressed  by  two. 

The  first  class  consists  of  a  in  name,  i  in  pine,  o 
in  note,  and  u  in  tune. 

The  second  consists  of  oi  in  oil,  and  ou  in  house. 

18.  There  are  many  combinations  of  vowels, 
which  are  not  diphthongs,  since  they  represent  but 
one  sound;  such  as  ea  in  beat,  au  in  pause,  ai  in 
said, 

They  are  expedients  to  show  the  quantity  or 
length  of  the  vowel.  Some  of  them  are  substi- 
tutes for  diphthongs,  and  for  other  simple  vowels. 
They  are  called  digraphs,  when  composed 
of  two  letters  ;  trigraphs  when  composed  of  three; 
as,  eau  in  head,  ieW  in  view. 

The  current  statement,  that  a  diphthong  is  the  union  of 
two  vowels,  is  incorrect;  unless  those  combinations  ex- 
press two  sounds,  an  initial  and  final.  For  instance  ea  in 
beat  is  not  a  diphthong,  but  a  digraph,  having  the  sound  of 
e  in  mete. 


18  PHONOLOGY. 

€HAPTER  III. 

TI1E   CONSONANTS. 

19.  If  any  of  the  organs  are  nearly  or  quite 

closed,  a  new  class  of  sounds  called  consonants 

are  heard.     They  break  the  stream  of  sound  into 

parts  and  thus  enable  us  to  utter  syllables  and 

words. 

This  makes  the  difference  between  man  and  the  animals 
in  speech.  Beasts  utter  vowel  sounds,  men,  as  Homer 
Ion0"  ago  observed  are  articulate  sjpeaJcing,  that  is,  they  nse 
consonants. 

20.  These  sounds  cannot  form  the  shortest  word 
without  the  aid  of  a  vowel,  and  are  hence  called 
consonant  that  is  sounding  together,  since  they  sound 
together  with  a  vowel. 

21.  The  organs  may  be  closed  entirely,  as  in  top, 
and  then  the  sound  be  explode  d  or  burst  out, 
of  the  closure  may  be  accompanied  by  a  reso- 
nant sound  as  in  rob,  rod. 

22.  The  first  class  are  called  sharp  or  surd,  the 
second  flat  or  sonant. 

23.  If  the  organs  in  each  class  are  not  brought 
quite  close  together,  but  the  breath  is  allowed  a 
n  arrow  pass  age,  a  rough  or  aspirated  sound  is 
heard. 

Thus  two  other  classes  of  sounds  are  formed,  the 
s  m  o  o  t  h,  as  in  tin,  din;  and  the  a  s  p  i  r  at  e  d  as 
in  thin,  thine. 

24.  If  contact  is  made,  but  the  breath  is  allowed 
to  flow  freely  around  the  point  of  contact,  or 
through  some  other-passage,  as  the  nose,  liquids 
or  flowing  sounds  are  formed. 


SYNOPSIS   OF    SOUNDS.  19 

25.  W  and  y  at  the  beginning  of  words  and 
syllables  are  consonants,  elsewhere  they  are  vow* 
els. 

They  are  hence  called  semivowels. 

JFis  aspirated  into  wh,  compare  ivit  with   whit. 

26.  The  full  systtm  of  sounds  in  English  is  as 
follows. 

VOWELS. 

SIMPLE    OR    PURE    VOWELS.  COMPOUND  OR   DIPHTHONGS. 

1  A  in  arm,  father.  11  A  in  name,  modified  in  air. 

2  A  in  all,  ball.  12  1  in  pine. 

3  A  in  at,  bat.  13    0  in  note. 

4  E  in  eve,  mete.  14    U  in  use,  tube. 

5  E  in  end,  send,  15    01  in  oil,  boil. 

G  1  in  in,  pin.  *  16  On  in  house,  how. 

7  0  in.  move,  prove.  semivowels. 

8  0  in  not,  rob.  17  lrin  yet,  my. 

9  U  in  bull,  pull.  •         18  Win  wit,  wet. 

10    Cm  but,  tub.  19    TF/t  in  whit,  when.  . 

CONSONANTS. 

SriARP    OR    SURD.  FLAT    OR    SONANT. 

Smooth.               Aspirate.               Smooth.               Aspirate. 
20  A'  in  kin 2 2T  G'm  dog 


22CA  in  church  23  *S7i  in  she  24  Jin  joy         25  Z/i  in  azure 

2G  /S'in  sin 27  Z  in. zeal 

28  Tin  tin         20  7%  in  thin  30/)  in  din         31  Th  in  thine 

32  P  in  pin        33  F  in  fin  34  7>  in  boat      35  I -in  vine 

LIQUIDS. 
3G  L  in  bull      37  .1/"  in  man     38  JVin  nun      30  Ng  in  Bing 
40  R  in  run      41  7%e  breathing  Illrt  hand,  hour,  hot 

27.  This  table  contains  all  the   sounds,  but  not  all  the 
characters  in  the  English  language. 

G  represents  the  20th   and   26th;   G  sounds soineti] 
like  the    2lst,  sometimes  like  the    24th,    Q  has  the  sound 
of  K. 

ifTand  Fare  not  exactly  aspirates  of  p  and  b,  since 
arc  formed,  not  between  the  lips,  but  between  the  under 
lip  and  upper  teeth. 


20  PHONOLOGY. 

28.  Sounds  are  also  classed  as  explosive  and 
co  ntin  u  ous. 

Tl:e  smooth  consonants  are  all  explo- 
sive. The  vowels,  the  liquids,  and  the 
aspirates  are  all  continuous. 

29.  The  relation  of  consonants  as  sharp  and  flat 
gives  rise  to  several  important  rules. 

Rule  I.  When  two  consonants  of  different  de- 
grees of  sharpness  and  flatness  come  together  they 
cannot  be  pronounced  ;  as  abt,  agt,  aj)d,  asd,  aut, 
agp,  of by  akd,  ashd,  abih,  akz,  afd,  akb,  fie. 

Rule  II.  When  two  consonants,  one  sharp  and 
the  other  flat  come  together  they  must  both  be- 
come sharp  or  flat  :— 

Avt    becomes  aft    or  avd. 
Abth        "  apth  or  abt. 

Agt  u  aid    or  agd. 

Ags  u  a/cs    or  agz. 

Asd         "  ast     or  azd,  &c.      * 

Rule  111.  Two  identical  letters  cannot  come 
together  in  the  same  syllable  and  be  pronounced ; 
as,  tapp,  bait. 

Two  letters  do  sometimes  occur,  eitlier  to  distinguish 
two  words  of  the  same  sound,  as  buff,  a  vessel  from  but  ex- 
cept; or,  as  was  sometimes  the  case  in  Old  English,  to  show 
that  a  vowel  was  short,  as  "  Ilimm  bidde  ice  thatt  hett 
write  rihht"  "Him  bid  I  that  it  write  right"  OitMULUM. 
13th  cent. 

oO.  Ilule  2nd  has  three  important  applications  in  Eng- 
lish Grammar,  the  plurals  of  nouns  in  s,  the  possessive 
case  in  *3  and  the  past  tense  in  ed. 

For  instance  stags  may  be  written,  but  it  must  be  pro- 
nounced stagz.  The  reason  is  that  the  forms  are  derived 
from  Saxon  where  stags  would  be  either  stagas  or  stages.  In 
English  we  have  dropped  the  c,  without  changing  the  *, 
as  ivordes  word's,  mannes  man's.      In  words  like  iossed 


SYLLABLES.  21 

plucked,  when  the  e  is  dropped  in  spelling  or  pronuncia- 
tion, they  are  sounded  toss't  pluck' t.  Hence  many  words 
are  spelled  in  that  manner ;  as  slept,  crept,  burnt,  dkc. 

31.    CLASSES    OF     CONSONANTS     ACCORDING     TO     ORGANS 
OF    FORMATION. 

1.  II  is  a  f  a  u  c  a  1  from  fauces  the  throat. 

2.  K,  q — g,  chard, — and  ng  are  gutturals, 
from  guttur  the  throat.  H  is  formed  lower  than 
these. 

3.  Ch,  sh,  j,  zh  and  y  consonant  are  palatals. 

4.  T,  th,  d,  th  in  this,  I,  n,  s,  and  z  ate  dentals 
from  dens  a  tooth. 

5.  R  is  a  lingual  from  lingua  the  tongue. 

6.  P,  b,  m,  f  v,  iv  are  labials  from  labium  a 
lip.  31,  n,  ng  are  also  i>a  s  al  s  . 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYLLABLES. 

32.  A  syllable  is  one  or  more  simple  sounds 
pronounced  by  one  impulse  of  the  voicje ;  as  com- 
bi-na-tion. 

Each  sylkible  must  contain  at  least  one  vowel. 

A  monosyllable  is  a  word  of  one  syllable. 
A  dissyllable  is  a  word  of  two  syllables,  a 
trissyllableof  three  syllables,  a  p  o  1  y  s  y  1 1  a  - 
b  1  e  of  more  than  three. 

33.    RULES    FOR    SYLLABLES. 

Rule  1.  Compound  words  are  separated  into 
simple;  as,  over-power,  foot-man, 


22  PHONOLOGY. 

Rule  2.  Two  vowels  which  do  not  form  diph- 
thongs are  separated ;  as  U-on,  cm-el,  de-ist. 

Rule  3.  Two  consonants  that  maybe  pronounced 
together  are  not  separated ;  as/a-6/e,  sti-fle  ;  other- 
wise they  are  separated ;  as,  hap-jyy'yUt-mostjiin-dcr. 

QUANTITY   OF    SYLLABLES. 

34.  By  quantity  is  meant  the  time  occupied  in 
pronouncing  a  syllable  ;  as  note  is  longer  than  not. 
The  long  sounds  are : —        The  short  sounds  are : — 


A  in  fatfcer, 
A  in  fate, 

» • 

ic           (I 

A  in  fat, 
E  in  bed, 

Ee  in  feet, 
Oo  in  cool, 
0  in  note, 
Aw  in  ball,  bawl, 

((           u                 u 

I  in  pit, 
U  in  bull, 
0  in  not, 

U  in  but. 

Forms  like  oo,  ee,  at,  ea,  oa,  are  expedients  to  show  that 
the  sound  is  long. 

EXERCISES. 

Let  the  pupil  write  out  these  words,  divide  them  into 
syllables,  and  point  out  their  quantity. 

Answer.  Improvement,  Justify,  'Justification, 
Conjugate,  Admiration,  Reaction,  Conscience, 
Atonement,  Horsemanship,  Penmanship,  Per- 
ceiving, Annoying,  Guarded,  Alliance,  Emphasis, 
Extinguish,  Scrutinize,  Consummate. 
Let  the  teacher  give  other  words, 

EXERCISES    IN    PHONETIC   ANALYSIS. 

85.  Remember  that  many  letters  and  combinations  of 
letters  are  silent;  as,  in  "Ili^A,  on  a  throne  of  royal  state/' 
the  letters  in  italics  are  silent. 

Secondly,  that  many  combinations  stand  for  simple  ele- 
ments.    * 


EXERCISES    IK   PHONETIC   ANALYSIS.  23 

Model.  "  High  on  a  throne  of  royal  state."  The 
first  element  is  h  in  hot,  the  second  i  in  pine,  the 
third  silent.  The  next  is  o  in  not,  second  n  in  nun. 
Next  a  in  name.  Next  /A  in  thin,  second  r  in  run, 
third  o  in  note,  fourth  n  in  ?nm,  fifth  silent.  Next  o 
in  720^,  second  v  in  rme.  Next  r  in  nm,  second  oi 
in  m7,  third  a  in  at,  fourth  I  in  8##.  Next  5  in  si??, 
second  £  in  tin,  third  a  in  aame,  fourth  t  in  £m, 
fifth  silent. 

Analyze  in  like  manner:— 

Of  law  no  less  can  be  acknowledged  than  that 
her  seat  is  the  bosom  of  God ;  her  voice,  the  har- 
mony of  the  world.  All  things  in  heaven  and 
earth  do  her  homage  ;  the  very  least  as  feeling  her 
care,  and  the  greatest  as  not  exempted  from  her 
power.  Hooker. 

Point  out  the  consonants  whether  surd  or  sonant,  ex- 
plosive or  continuous ;  and  their  classes,  whether  guttu- 
ral, palatal,  dental,  or  labial. 

-  Let  the  teacher  give  similar  exercises  until  the  pupil  is 
familiar  with  the  elements. 


24  ORTHOGRAPHY. 


PAET    SECOND. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  VOWEL  LETTERS  AND  THEIR  SOUNDS. 

36.  Orthography  treats  of  the  correct  meth- 
od of  spelling  and  writing  words. 

•    Phonology  belongs    to    the    spoken    language, 
Orthography  belongs  to  the  written. 

37.  The  simple  sounds  are  represented  by  let- 
ters. There  are  in  English  41  sounds,  to  repre- 
sent which  there  are  26  letters. 

A,  c,  e,  /,  g,  h,  i,  o,  s,  u,  w,  x,  and y,  represent  more  than 
one  sound.  » 

Th ,  dh,  ch,  sh,  wh,  zh,  have  no  simple  character  t  to  rep- 
resent them. 

C,  q,  and  x,  are  unnecessary,  except  fo^  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  derivation  of  words. 

38.  The  vowel  letters  are  a,  e,  it  o,  u,  w, 
and  y. 

The  consonant  letters  are  the  mutes,  b,  c, 
d,  /)  9,  h  k,  JP>  <?>  5>  ^>  ^)  %,  and  z  ;  the  liquids  I,  m, 
n,  r  ;  the  breathing  or  simple  aspirate  h. 

SOUNDS   OF   THE   VOWELS. 

89.  A  has  four  sounds.  1.  A  in  name.  This  is 
a  diphthong.     It  is  modified  by  r  in  care,  air. 


THE    VOWEL    LETTERS.  2"> 

2.  A  in  father,  far,  called  the  Italian  a.  This  i* 
the  primary  sound  of  a  and  was  once  more  com- 
mon in  English  than  now.  A  in  dance,  fast,  is  a 
modification  of  this,  Intermediate  between  it  and 
a  mfat. 

3.  A  in  jail,  all,  called  broad  a.  There  is  a  shor  - 
cned  sound  of  this  in  ivhat. 

4.  A  in  fat.  This  is  the  short  or  dependent 
Bound  of  a. 

Short  is  not  the  proper  term  since  the  sound  of  a  in  fa f 
*an  be  continued  as  long  as  a  in  fate  or  far.  The  differ- 
ence between  fate  and  fat  consists  not  in  length,  but  in 
the  abrupt  force  of  the  t.  Latham  proposes  the  terms  In- 
dependent and  dependent  to  express  this  difference.  TEe 
Rame  remark  applies  to  the  other  vowels. 

40.  E  has  two  sounds.  1.  Em  mete,  aw  In  there. 
where,  it  sounds  like  a  in  eare.  In  error,  mercy. 
her  it  is  modified  by  r,  so  as  to  be  intermediate 
between  e  in  mete  and  ur.  It  should  not  be  pro- 
nounced urror,  murcy,  $c. 

2.  Eiu.  met,  end,  E  silent  at  the  end  of  words 
softens  c  and  s,  as  in  France,  expense.  It  lengthens 
a  preceding  vowel. 

41.  I  has  two  sounds.  1.  I  in  pine*  This  is  u 
diphthong. 

2.  I'm  pin,  pit.    This  is  the  dependent  sound  of. 
cm  mete:     In  machine  it  has  the  sound  of  .*.      In 
sir,  bird,  it  is  like  err. 

42.  0  has  three  sounds.  1.  0  in  fiofe.  This  if  u 
diphthong. 

2.  O  in  not,  which  is  nearly  the  sound  of  a  in  all 

3.  0  in  move,  prove. 

43.  U  has  three  sounds.  1.    Urn  mule,  me.    This 


2t)  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

ia  a  diphthong.  Compare  use  with  youth.  2..  U 
in  but, 

3.    ZZ  in  bull,  pull. 

Oi  and  Ou  are  proper  diphthougs,  here  repre^ 
seuted  by  two  letters. 

W and?/, where  vowels,  have  the  sounds  of  u  and  L 

44.  In  language,  generally,  the  vowels  sound  thus.  A 
like  a  in^ar;  c  like  a  in  name  nearly;  i  like  e  in  mete) 
o  like  o  in  note,  ?io£;  u  like  o  in  move. 

In  English  there  has  been  a.  gradual  falling  off  from  the 
open  vowel  sounds  to  those  more  slender;  from  a  to  et 
from  e  to  i. 

45.  The  diphthongs  are  analyzed  thus.  A 
in  name  closes  with  the  sound  oft  (It  commences 
with  continental  e  and  ends  with  y.)  I  in  pine 
commences  with  a  m  fat  and  closes  with  e,  (or  y.) 
O  in  note  closes  with  the  sound  of  o  in  mo#e.  Z7 
in  W5e  commences  with  e  in  eiT<?  and  ends  with  o  in 
move.  01  commences  with  the  sound  of  a  in  ail 
and  closes  with  e  (or  y.)  Ou  in  o^,  owr  commences 
with  a  in  far*  and  closes  with  o  in  move. 

46.  The  vowels  are  substituted  for  each  other  in 
a  large  number  of  words,  as  in  these  examples  : — 

A  1,  in  name.  Weigh,  obey,  there,  sail,  day r  air, 
break. 

A  2,  in  far.  Heart,  daunt,  baa,  guard. 

A  3,-  in  all.    Caul,  awful,  nor,  broad,  ought. 

A  4,  in  at.  Shall,  plaid. 

E  1,  in  mete.  Machine,  Ccesar,  tea,  eel,  people,key. 

E  2,  in  met.  Any,  bury,  head,  heifer,  friend,  said. 

I  1,  in  pine.  Comply,  aisle,  height,  ley,  die,  guide, 
buy. 

12,  in  pin.  England,  women,  busy,  hymn. 

0  3,  in  note.    Yeoman,  beau,  coal,  thouyh,  foe. 

*More  close! j,  with  a  60und  between  u  in  but,  and  a  in/a** 


THB  CONSONANT  LETTERS.  21 

O  2,  in  not.   Cough,  icas. 

0  3,  in  move.  Canoe,  soup,  rule. 

U  1,  in  mule.  New,  feud,  beauty,  lieu,  juice. 

XJ  2,  in  but.  Done,  myrrh. 

U  3,  in  fall.    Wolf,  could.  4. 

Oi  in  oil.  Boy.  Ou  in  house.    Now. 


.  CHAPTER  VL 

THE    CONSONANT    LETTERS    AND    THEIR    SOUNDS. 

They  will  be  arranged  according  to  the  organs  produ- 
cing them,  from  the  throat  outward  to  the  lips. 

47.  I.  II  is  formed  deepest  down  the  throat  and 
is  called  a  f  a  u  c  a  1 .  It  isa  br  ea  t  h  i  n  g  and 
ha3  two  sounds;  1,  the  smooth,  commonly 
called  silent  h,  as  in  hour;  2,  the  rough,  com- 
monly7 called  hard  h,  as  in  Jwrse. 

The  smooth  h  is  best  heard  when  two  words  come 
together,  the  one  ending  and  the  other  beginning  with  a 
vowel;  as  in  go  over,  no  order. 

48.  II.  The  Gutturals  are  k,  qy c  and g hard, 
and  ng. 

1.  K  has  only  one  sound,  as  in  kite. 

2.  C  before  the  vowels  a,o,u,  is  sounded  like 
k,  as  in  cake,  come.  C  before  e,  i  and  y,  is  soft  like 
s,  as  in  cent,  city.  In  social  it  is  like  sh.  Ck,  since  it 
is  the  doubling  of  two  like  elements,  is  sounded 
like  simple  k,  as  in  kick. 

K before  n  is  silent,  as  in  knife. 

3.  Q  is  always  followed  by  u  and  is  equivalent 
to  kic. 

4.  G  is  hard  before  a,  o,  u.  Before  the  other 


28  ORTHOGRAPHY.  I 

vowels  e,  i,  and  y,  it  is  soft  like  j,  except  in-gig, 
get,  give. 

In  hedge  the  e  shows  that  it  is  soft,  in  prorogue  the 
a  shows  that  it  is  hard. 

Before  m  and  n  in  the  same  syllable  it  is  silent, 
sis  in  phlegm,  resign. 

Gh  at  the  beginning  of  words  is  sounded  like  g. 
Xi\  other  placesit  is  generally  silent,  as  in  high,plough, 
through.  In  laugh  and  enough  it  is  sounded  like/; 
in  /tot^/i  like  ft. 

5.  iV^  is  a  simple  elementary  sound,  as  in  sing. 
It  is  also  heard  in  sink,  link,  &c., 

49.  III.  The  Palatals  are  ch,  sh,  j,  zh,  and  y 
consonant.  Ch,  sh,  zh,  are  simple  elements  repre- 
sented by  two  letters. 

1.  Ch  is  generally  analyzed  as  equal  to  tsh,  but  it 
is  an  explosive  sound,  is  not  formed  so  far  forward 
as  t,  and  has  nothing  of  the  continous  sound  of  sh* 

It  sounds  like  ft  in  clioras,-  sh  in  machine,  and  i* 
silent  in  drachm. 

2.  #A  is  the  aspirate  of  ch.  It  is  represented  by 
s  in  sure. 

3.  «7is  a  simple  sound  and  is  the  sonant  of  ch. 

4.  Zh  or  z  in  oswre  is  the  aspirate  of/  It  is 
represented  by  5  in  pleasure. 

5.  Tis  a  simple  sound,  as  in  year.  m 

50.  IV.  The  Dentals  are  t,  th,  d,  (dh)  thin 
thine,  I,  n,  c  soft,  s,  and  z. 

1.  T represents  a  simple  sound.  Ti  followed  by  a 
vowel  has  the  sound  of  sh,  as  in  portion,  motion. 

2.  Th  represents  two  Mmple  sounds.  Tli  in  thin 
is  the  aspirate  of  t.     Th  in  thine  is  the  aspirate  of 


THE  CONSONANT  LETTERS.         23 

d.  ■   They  were  represented  in  Saxon  by  different 
letters. 

3.  D  represents  a  simple  sound,  &&"msend. 

4.  L  represents  a  simple  sound,  as  in  lull. 

L  and  r  are  by  some  called  semivowels.  They  approach 
the  character  of  vowels. 

5.  N represents  a  simple  sound.  It  is  silent  after 
m  and  I,  as  in  hymn,  k:ln. 

Before  k  it  sounds  like  ng,  as  in  sink,  (sine/k.) 

6.  S  represents  a  simple  sound.  It  is  sounded 
like  z  in  bosom,  sh  in  sure,  zk  in  'pleasure. 

7.  Z  represents  a  simple  sound.  It  is  the  sonant 
of  5. 

51.  V.  11  represents  a  simple  sound.  It  is  a 
lingual,  since  the  tongue  is  the  chief  organ  in 
producing  it.  It  is  a  liquid  and  closely  approaches 
a  vowel  sound.  It  modifies  the  sound  of  all  the 
vowels,  as  in  care,  air,  her,  bird,  for,  syrtis. 

52.  VI.  The  Labials  are  p,b,  f,  m,  v,w. 

The  labials  are  the  most  outward  sounds  and  the  first, 
that  children  learn  to  utter. 

1.  P  represents  a  simple  sound.  It  is  silent  is 
psalm. 

*Ph  is  sounded  fin  Philip,  v  in  Stephen. 

2.  B  represents  a  simple  sound  and  is  the  sonant 
of  p. 

3.  M represents  a  simple  sound. 

4.  F  represents  a  simple  sound.  In  of  it  in 
sounded  v.     It  is  nearly  the  aspirate  of  p. 

5.  V  represents  a  simple  sound.  It  is  the  sonant 
off,  and  the  aspirate  of  6  nearly. 

6.  W as  a  consonant  represents  a  simplo  sound, 
as  in  wit.     It  is  aspirated  in  whit. 


30  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

53.  Xis  a  compound  sound,  representing  &s  in 
b&x,  gz  in  example,  and  z  in  Xerxes. 

&4.  Our  Alphabet  is  thus  imperfectly  adapted 
to  express  our  sounds. 

It  came  to  us  from  the  Romans,  and  is  derived 
from  the  Phenician  through  the  Old  Greek. 

55.  The  sounds  represented  by  the  letters  of  th© 
English  Alphabet  are  therefore  these, 
A  as  in  fate,  far,  fall,  fat.  M  as  in  maim. 
-B  as  in  rob.  P  as  in  pin. 

0  hard  'mean,  soft  in  city.  Q  as- in  queen. 
D  as  in  rod.  R  as  in  rob,  far. 

E  as  in  mete,  met.  S  as  in  sin,m has,  and  in 
F  as  in  fate,  and  in  of.  sure. 

G  hard  in  go,  soft  in  giant.  T  as  in  take. 

H  hard  in  horse,  soft  in  IT  as  in  mule,  tub,  buU. 

honor.  V  as  in  vane. 

1  as  in  pine,  pin.  W  as  in  wet,  and  in  new. 
J  as  in  jog.  X  as  in  Xerxes,  tax,  and 
K  as  in  king,  took.  example. 

L  as  in  lull.  Y  as  in  get. 

N  as  in  nun.  Z  in  zeal,  and  in  azure. 

0  as  in  note,  not,  prove. 


RULES   FOR    SPELLING.  9X 

CHAPTER  VII. 

RULES  FOR    SPELLING. 

.  Capital  Letters. 

66.  Begin  with  a  capital : — • 

1.  Every  sentence,  and  every  line  of  poetry. 

2.  Proper  nouns  and  common  nouns  personi- 
fied ;  as,  George  Washington.  Hail,  bounteoui 
Autumn! 

8.  Names  and  appellations  of  the  Deity;  as,  God, 
Jehovah,  the  Almighty,  the  Messiah,  the  Holy  Spirit. 
.  4.  Titles  of  honor  and  office,  names  of  religious 
bodies,  parties,  and  public  bodies;  as,  Governor 
Clark,  Judge  Marshall,  Baptist,  Congress,  go. 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names;  a*, 
lloman,  English,  Amcriean. 

6.  Direct  quotations  ;  as,  "Our  Saviour  said 
'  Take  up  thy  cross  and  follow  me.'  '• 

7.  Important  words  in  the  titles  of  books;  as, 
Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets. 

8.  I  and  O  should  always  ho  in  capitals. 

9.  Words  that  are  remarkably  emphatic. 

-57.    RULES    FOR    MONOSYLLABLES. 

llule  I.  Monosyllables  ending  in  /,  I,  or  s,  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  vowel,  double  the  final  letter; 
as,  stuff,  muff,  staff,  ivill,  mass. 

Fxcept  of,  if,  has,  his,  was,  yes,  gds,  is,  this,  thus,  t*f, 
pus. 

Jhde  II.  Those  ending  in  any*  other  consonant 

do  not  double  the  final  letter;  as,  it,  nor,  £c. 

EXCEPT  add,  ebb,  odd,  egg,  err,  purr,  burr,  inn.  butt, 
buzz. 


32  OSTEOGRAPHY. 

68.    RULES    FOR    COMPOUNDS   AND    DERIVATIVES. 

Rule  III.  Compounds  retain  the  spelling  of  the 
principal  words  that  compose  them ;  as,  fireman, 
horseman. 

Rule  IV.  Final  e  is  rejected  before  an  ending 

beginning  with  a  vowel ;  as,  bribe,  bribing;  blame, 

blamablc. 

Exception.  Words  ending  in  ce  and  ge  and  taking  able 
or  ous,  and  verbs  in  ee,  oe,  retain  the  e  ;  as,  peace,  peaces 
Me;  change,  changeable ;  see,  seeing;  hoe,  hoeing. 

Rule  V.  Final  e  is  retained  before  an  ending 

beginning  with  a  consonant;  as,  case,  casement 

Except  in  duly,  truly,  wholly,  aw  fid,  judgment. 

Rule  VI.  Monosyllables,  and  words  accented  on 
the  last  syllable,  when  preceded  by  a  single  vowel 
double  the  final  consonant  on  receiving  an  addition 
beginning  with  a  vowel;  as,  rob,  robber;  rag,  rag- 
ged; trim,  trimming. 

Rule  VII.  Words  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a 
consonant  change  the  y  into  i  on  receiving  an 
addition;  as,  happy,  ha-pipier ;  lovely,  lovelier. 

Rule  VIII.  Verbs  ending  in  ie  change  ie  into  y 
before  ing ;  as  die,  dying  ;   tie,  tying. 

Rule  IX.  Words  ending  in  II  drop  one  I  before 
kss  and  ly ;  as  skill,  skil-less ;  hill,  hil-ly. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

Hiss  book.  I  heard  a  goose  his.  The  gass  is  out.  1 
looked  in  the  glag.  Pinns  were  scattered  about.  Hee 
omitted  the  last  lesson.  The  foxes  were  riming  acros  tho 
fields.  Seizeing  his  gun  he  pursuced  them.  He  spoke 
truely.  He  acted  ablely  and  and  noblely.  He  is  a  skilful 
workman.  Your  visit  was  wellcome.  She  is  happyer 
than  I  am.  It  was  a  gloryous  act.  On  the  enteranco 
of  the  actoress  the  house  became  silent. 


RULES    FOR    SPELLING. 


as 


tomorrow's  sun  may  never  rise,     ingland,  ireland,  Bcot- 
land  and  wales  form  ihe  kingdom  of  Great  britain. 

The  ozark  mountains  cross  the  line  that  scperatcs  mis- 
souri  from  arkansas. 

"  he  that  by  the  plough  would  thrive,  " 
"  himself  must  either  hold  or  drive.  " 
i  am  going  to  see  mr.  John  jonea. 


ti  ETYMOLOGY. 


PAET    THIED, 


TYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

INTRODUCTION. 

SECTION  I. 

59.  Etymology  treats  of  the  origin,  his- 
tory, classes,  and  f  orras  of  words. 

Etymology   treats   of  words   simply,   while 

Syntax  treats  of  words  united  in  propositions 

and  sentences. 

In  studying  grammar  we  mnst  study  icords  and  proposi- 
tiym  at  the  same  time. 

(50.  A  proposition  is  a  collection  of  words 

that  expresses  a  complete  thought;    as,    "John 

runs."   "The  rose  is  beautiful."    "  The  sun  rises." 

61.  It  consists  of  two   parts,  subject  and  predi- 

1.  The  subject  is  that  of  which  something  is 
*&id  ;  as,  John  in  John  runs. 

2.  The  p  r  c«d  i  c  a  t  e  is  that  which  is  said  of  the 
subject;  as,  runs  in  John  runs, 

62.  To  analyze    means   to  take- apart.      In 


AKALYSIS   OF   n.oroSITlONS.  85 

grammar  it  means  to  point  out  the  subjects,  -pred- 
icates, and  modifying  words. 

63.  To  c  o  m  p  o  s  e  means  to  put  together. 

In  grammar  it  means  to  form  propositions  and 
sentences. 

1.  Analyze  these  propositions: — 

The  rain  fully.     The  sun  shines.     The  days  arc  lon^v 
The   rose  is    beautiful.     The  wind  blew.     Cod    is  great.. 
Uis  word  is  true. 

II.     Compose    propositions    containing   the** 
words: — ■ 

1.  Sun.  5.  Apples, plums  and  8.  The  wood*. 

'2.  Wind.  pears.  9.  The  river. 

?>.  Clouds.  6.  The  rose. 

4.  Father  and  mother.     7.  The  garden. 

SECTION  II. 

LOaiCAL  AND  GRAMMATICAL  SUBJECTS  AND  PREDICATES. 

64.  1  When  I  say,  "  The  ant  provides  for  win- 
ter; "  ant  is  the  grammatical  subject. 

2.  When  I  say,  "  The  prudent  ant  provides  for 
winter;"    "  the  prudent  ant"  is  the  logical  subject. 

d.  The  grammatical^  u  b  j  e  c  t  is  the  sim- 
ple subject. 

4.  The  logical  subject  is  the  grammati- 
cal subject  with  its  various  modifiers. 

The  aridprudent  are  the  modifiers  of  ant. 

6.  A  modifying  word  is  a  word  used  to  deseribe  quality 

or  otherwise  limit  another. 

"  The  sacred  book  of  the  Mahometans  is  called 
the  Koran."  "Is  called,"  is  the  grammmatical 
predicate.  "Is  called  the  Koran,"  is  the  logical  pred- 
icate. 


50  BTYMOLOOY. 

6.  The  grammatical  predicate  is  the  simple  predi- 
cate. 

7.  The  logical  "predicate  is  the  grammatical  pred- 
icate with  its  various  modifiers. 

Point  out  the  different  forms  of  subject  and  predicate  in 
these  propositions. 

EXERCISES. 

The  prudent  man  foresees  the  evil  day  and  provides 
against  it.  The  manifold  works  X)f  God  display  his  power 
and  goodness.  The  doctrines  of  Christianity  arc  founded 
on  the  Bible. 

Xenophon,  the  historian,  was  a  disciple  of  Socrates. 
True  worth  is  modest  and  retiring.  The  old  bird  tenderly 
provides  for  her  young. 

Write  six  sentences  describing  a  rose.  Also  six  describ- 
ing an  orange. 

SECTION  III. 

DIVISION    OF    SENTENCES. 

($5.  Propositions,  single  or  combined,  form  sen- 
tences. 

1.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  prop- 
osition; as,  "The  sun  shines." 

2.  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or 
more  propositions;  as,  "The  sun  shines  and  the 
clouds  disappear."  "  Vice  is  degrading,  but  virtuo 
Is  ennobling." 

66.  We  may  declare  .something,  ask  something, 
command  something,  or  exclaim  something. 

67.  Hence  there  are  declarative,  interrogative  f  im- 


DIVISION    OF    SENTENCES.  37 

perative,  and  exclamatory  sentences. 

Declarative  and  imperative  sentences  end  with 
periods(.);  interrogative,  with  the  interrogation 
point(?);  and  exclamatory,  with  the  exclamation 
point(!). 

I.  What  kind  of  sentences  are  these? 

James  reads.  What  is  lie  reading  ?  Let  him  read. 
How  well  he  reads!     If  he  reads,  he  will  imr>rove. 

II.  Change  these  into  interrogative  sentences: 
Love  conquers  all   things.     God   is  good.     Mother  is 

kind.     The  fields   arc  green.     The  warm  sun  ripens  the 
grain.     The  rains  refresh  the  thirsty  earth. 

"III.  Make  these  declarative  : — 

Have  }'Ou  learned  your  lesson  ?  Has  the  teacher  cpme  ! 
Have  you  seen  your  friend  I     Must  all  men  die  ? 

IV.  Make  these  imperative  : — ■ 

The  sun  shines.  Model.  Let  the  sun  shine.  Does 
John  read  ?  James  is  coming.  No  one  loves  bad  men. 
They  prize  virtue  more  than  gold. 

V.  Make  these  exclamatory  : — 

It  rains  hard.  Model.  How  hard  it  rains!  Does  Johg 
study  hard  ?  Does  Mary  play  well  ?  The  evening  twi- 
light is  beautiful.  The  moon  shines  beautifully.  It  silvers 
the  tops  of  the  trees.     The  winds  blow  chilly  and  drearil  v. 

Analyze  the  sentences  given  above. 

68.  A  simple  sentence  may  consist  of  two,  or 
of  three  parts. 

1.  The  subject  and  predicate  may  stand  in  im- 
mediate connection  with  each  other;  as,  in  JoJqi 
sings. 

2.  Or  they  may  be  separated  from  each  other 
by  is  or  some  word  of  similar  meaning;  as,  "  The 
apple  is  sour."  "John  is  a  farmer."  ' 

3.  Is  here  connects  the  predicate  with  the  sub- 

4 


38  ETYMOLOGY. 

ject  and  is  called  a  copula,  which  means  a  link  or 
joining. 

Write  sentences  describing  a  chair,  a  tabic,  and 
a  desk. 


CHAPTER  IX, 


CLASSES    OF    WORDS. 


09.  The  words  which  form  sentences  have  dif- 
ferent meanings  and  uses. 

I.  Some  words  are  names  of  persons  or  things. 
1.  These  are  called  Nouns.  2.  They  may  he 
either  subjects,  or" predicates  of  propositions;  as, 
u  James  is  a  painter.  " 

II.  Some  words  tell  us  what  is  oris  done  ;  or  as- 
sert something. 

1.  They  are  called  Verbs;  as,  "John  reads.1 
"  The  rose  is  sweet.". 

2.  They  can  form  the  predicates  of  propositions 
*alone. 

III.  Some  words  stand  for  nouns.  1.  They  are 
called  Pronouns  ;  as,  "John  reads  Ms  book." 

2.  They  may  be  used  anywhere  instead  of  nouns. 

IV.  Some  words  modify  nouns and  pronouns  ;  as, 
"The  grass  is  green."   "Asivectroae."    "  litis  man." 

1.  They  are  called  Adjectives. 

2.  They  may  form  the  predicates  of  propositions, 
but  cannot  be  used  alone  as  subjects. 

V.  Some  words  modify  nouns,  but  cannot  be 
used  alone  as  predicates ;  as, "The  apple.'  "pA  man." 
They  are  called  Articles. 

VI.  Some  words  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs 


DIVISION    OF  SENTENCES.  39 

and  Adjectives;    as,   "The  sun    shines  brightly." 
"The  tree  is  very  high." 

1.  They  are  called  Adverbs. 

2.  They  form  no  essential  part  of  the  proposi- 
tion, but  only  modify  its  members. 

•VII.  Some  words  connect  nouns  and  pronouns 
with  other  words  and  point  out  the  relations 
between  them;  as,  "  lie  comes  with  me." 

1.  They  are  called  Prepositions.  2.  They  form 
no  essential  part  of  a  proposition,  but  only  express 
relations. 

VIII.  Some  words  are  used  to  connect  words  and 
propositions  together;  as,  "James  and  Mary  are 
coming."  "The  sun  rises  and  the  clouds  disap- 
pear." 

1.  They  are  called  Conjunctions.  2.  "They  con- 
nect propositions  together  without  forming  a  part 
of  either. 

IX.  Some  words  are  used  in  cries  of  anger,  dis- 
tress,  joy,  &c;  as,.0!oh!  ah!  huzza! 

1.  They  are  called  Interjections. 

2.  They  form  no  part  of  any  proposition. 

70.  Thus  there  are  nine  classes  of  words,  or  as 
they  arc  called  Parts  of  Speech". 

71.  They  are  the  Noun,  Verb,  Pronoun,  Adjec- 
tive, Article,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction,  and 
Interjection. 

72.  They  are  either  essential,  or  notional  words, 
that  is,  such  as  express  some  idea ;  or  they  &tq  for- 
mal, or  relational  avohIs,  that  is,  such  as  express 
relation,  connection  and  so  forth. 

I.  The  notional  words  are  : — 
1.    The     Noun;    2.  Adjectives;    3.    Verbs;    4. 


40  ETYMOLOGY. 

Advgrds  of  manner,  time  and  place,  when  used 
without  any  reference  to  the  speaker ;  as,  "  The 
child   sleeps  sweetly,'1'      "He  will  arrive   etatly." 
"  They  went  eastward.  " 
II. .  The  r  e  1  a  t  i  o  n  a  1  words  are  : — 
1.  Auxiliary  verbs;   2.  Articles;  3,  Pronouns  -f 
4.  Numerals;    5.  Prepositions;  6.   Conjunctions; 
7.  Relational  Adverbs,  that  is,  those  not  used  abso- 
lutely, but  relating  to  the  speaker;    as,  "  He  lives 
here."     "  He  departs  now."     "  He  speaks  thus." 


CHAPTER  X. 

NOUNS. 

73.    A    n  o  u  n    is-  the  n  am  e  of  any  person, 

place,  or  thing. 

Or  in  reference  to  the  proposition  : —  • 

A  Noun  is  a  word,  that  with  all  finite  verbs 

may  form  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  or  with  the 

verb  to  be  may  form  the  predicate. 

The  word  noun  is  from  the  Latin  nomen  and  means  a 
name.  »m 

74.  There  are  two  general  classes  of  nouns. 

1.  Jbirst,  the  names  of  objects  that  actually  exist 
together  with  their  qualities  or  attributes. 

*  They  are  called  Concrete  Nouns. 
Concrete  means  grown  together. 

2.  Second,  the  names  of  qualities  or  attributes, 
separate  from  their  objects  ;  as,  Mother  is  the  name 
of  a  person  with  all  her  attributes,  and  is  a  concrete 
noun,   but  goodness,    love,  patience,   kindness,    are 


CLASSES   OF   WORDS.  41 

names  of  attributes  separated  from  her  as  their 
object.  * 

They  are  called  Abstract  Nouns. 

Abstract  means  drawn  from  5r  separated. 

75.  Under  Concrete  Nouns  are  comprised  : — 

1.  Names  of  objects  that  exist  as  individ- 
uals as,  man,  free,  horse. 

2.  Names  of  objects  that  do  not  exist  as  individ- 
uals, as,  goldy  silver,  iron,  ivood,  water,  air,  wheat, 
cotton,  ashes,  dregs,  news,  wages,  $c. 

They  are  called  Material  nouns. 

76.  Nouns  denoting  individual  objects  are  divi- 
ded into  Vroper,  Common,  Complex,  and  Collective 
nouns. 

77.  A  Common  Noun  is  the  name  of  a 
whole  class  of  objects  ;  as,  tree,  house,  man,  city,  ke. 

78.  A  Pro  p  e  r  No  u  n  is  a  particular  name  o 
any  person,  place,   or  riling  ;     as,  city  is  a  name 
common  to  all  cities  and  is  a  common  noun,  while 
Richmond,  lialciyh,  and   Charleston,   are  names  of 
particular  cities  and  are  proper  nouns. 

79.  A  Complex  Nou'n  is  a  name,  together 
with  some  title;  as,  Mr.  'William  Johnson,  General 
Washington,  Judge  Marshall.  They  are  proper 
nouns. 

80.  A  Collective  Noun  is  a  noun  signify- 
ing many  persons  or.  things  taken  as  one  whole  ; 
as,  army,  people,  nation,  society,  Congress. 

They  may  be  proper  nouns  ;  as,  Congress,  'Parlia- 
ment ;  or  common  nouns;  as,ncrfion,  people,  army. 

81.  The  distinction  of  common  and  proper  nouns  belongs 
only  to  those  objects  that  may  form  classes,  and  more 
especially  to  the  names'  oi'  such  ohjects  as  exist  as  indi- 
viduals. 


42  ETYMOLOGY. 

Abstract  nouns  are  in  their  nature  particular  names  and 
do  not  naturally  receive  the  distinction  of  common  and 
proper.  Such  of  them  as  may  become  plural  may  admit 
the  distinction  of  class  and  individual  objects;  as,  "Justice 
is  one  of  the  virtues."     This  is  not  their  natural  usage. 

82.  Anything  is  sa*id  to  be  personified,  when  an 

object  without  life  is  represented  as  having  life  or 

a  personal  existence. 

When  abstract  objects  are  personified  their  names 
become  concrete  nouns,  and  may  be  common  or  proper  ; 
as,  soul,  spirit,  time,  &c. 

Examples.  "0  Time,  how  few  thy  value  weigh !" 

"Genius  and  Learning  walk  in   the  train  of  virtue. " 
"Peace  ajid  Plenty  smile  upon  the  land." 

83.  A  Verbal  noun  is  a  noun  derived  from  a 
verb;  as,  "  Writing  is  a  tiresome,  reading  is  a  plea- 
sant employment." 

1.  In  Saxon  they  ended  in  vng  ;  nsf  cleansuny  ;  a  cleans- 
ing; clepung,  a  calling. 

"1.  They  may  be  distinguished  by  being  derived  from 
verbs,  anld  by  their  ability  to  form  the  subjects  of  propo- 
sitions.    They  are  abstract  nouns. 

Building,  a  house,  or  thing  built,  and  some  others  have 
become  concrete  nouns. 

84.  Proper  nouns  represent  but  one  object. 

1.  When  they  become  plural,  they  are  common 
nouns;  as,  The  Stuarts,  1  he  Jameses,   The  Browns.  t 

2.  When  we  speak  of  a  people ;  as,  the  Rus- 
sians, the  English,  those  words  are  proper  nouns ; 
but* when  we  speak  of  individuals,  they  are  com- 
mon ;  as,  "  I  saw  several  Russians  in  London." 

3.  When  the  articles  stand  before  proper  nouns 
theybecome  common ;  as,  "  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his 
age,"  that  is,  he  is  a  great  orator.     "  He  is  not  a 

Washington,"  that  is,  a  great  and*  good  man. 

4.  When  the  is  prefixed  to  common  nouns,  they 


CLASSES    OF  WORDS.  43 

may  be  used  as  proper  nouns ;  as,  The,  Bar,  the 
Park,  the  Common,  the  Deluge. 

5.  Any  word,  letter,  or  character  used  merely  as 
such,  is  a  noun;  as,  UA  is  an  article,"  "  Truly  is 
an  adverb,"  '.•  6  is  a  figure,"  "  The  he's  and  she's 
will  be  there." 

EXERCISES    FOR   ANALYSIS   AND    PARSING. 

Model.  James  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name;  proper,  it  is  a 
particular  name. 

River  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name;  common,  a  general  name 

Barley  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name;  material,  it  denotes  a 
material  substance. 

Goodness  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name;  abstract,  it  is  the  name 
of  a  quality. 

Nation  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name;  collective,  it* denotes 
many  as  one  whole.  Writing  is  a  noun,  it  is  a  name; 
verbal,  it  is  the  name  of  an  action.  Studies  is  a  verb,  it 
asserts  something. 

James  studies  his  lesson.  The  river  is  called 
the  Kile.  Barle}T,  wheat,  and  corn  grow  in  the 
holds.  Goodness  is  a  quality  to  be  esteemed. 
The  nation  is  divided.  Writing  letters  to  our 
friends  is  pleasant  labor.  The  pine  is  a  tall  tree. 
Holland  is  the  name  of  a  country  in  Europe. 
Industry  is  a  law  of  our  being.  It  is  a  demand  of 
nature,  of  reason',  and  of  God. 

The  pupil  may  analyze  and  parse  all  the  words  in  the^c 
sentences,  ur  point  out  only  those  things  that  he  has 
learned. 


44  ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

PROPERTIES   OF   NOUNS   AND    PRONOUNS. 
SECTION   I.  PERSON. 

Pronouns  stand  for  nouns  and  have  all  their  properties ; 
hence  the  properties  of  nouns  and  pronouns  may  be  con- 
sidered together. 

85.  I  may  say  1  write,  thou  writest  or  you  write, 
he  writes,  or  James  writes. 

1.  Here  I  marks  the  speaker ;  thou  or  you,  the 
one  spoken  to,  andhe  or  James,  the  one  spoken  of. 

2.  This  distinction  is  called  in  Grammar  j)ci  son. 

86.  Person  is  a  property  of  norms  and  pro- 
nouns, that  denotes  the  speaker,  the  one  spolcen  to, 
and  the  one  spoken  of.* 

1.  There  are  three  persons  ',  the [first,  second,  and 
third. 

2.  The  first  person  denotes  the  speakers 

3.  The  second  person  denotes  the  one  spoken  to. 

4.  The  third  person  denotes  the  person  or  object 
spoken  of. 

5.  The  pronoun  has  different  words  to  represent 
the  persons.  7  represents  the  first  person  ;  thou, 
or  you  the  second  ;  he,  she,  and  it  the  third. 

87.  This  distinction  strictly  has  reference  only  to  per- 
sons, but  it  is  extended  in  the  second  person  to  objects 
person ified;  as,  "0  3)cath,  where  is  thy  sting!*'  and  in 
the  third  person  to  animals  and  things ;  as,  "The  wind 
blows." 

1.  In  the  first  and  second  persons  the  pronouns  are  the 
true  representatives  of  the  personality  of  the  speaker  or 
person  Addressed. 

2,  Nouns  are  never  used  in  the  first*  and  second  person 


NUMBER.  45 

subjects  or  objects  of  the  verb,  but  only.in  apposition 
with  pronouns  expressed  or  understood;  as,  "I,  Victoria. 
queen)of  England,command,"&c.'f John  come  (thou)  tome." 

88.  The  verb  has  three  persons  to  agree  with 
the  three  persons  of  the  subject;  as,  /  sing,  thou 
singes t ,  he  sings. 

exercises. 

Model.  James  is  a  proper  noun,  it  is  a  particular  name; 
third  person,  spoken  of,  and  is  tiie  subject  of  goes.  1  is 
a  pronoun,  it  stands  for  a  noun;  first  person,  it  denotes  the 
speaker,  and  is  the  subject  of  am. 

James  goes  to  school,  he  learns  well.  I  am  glad 
to  see  you.  You  must  come  with  me.  Spring  has 
come.  The  rains  refresh  the  fields.  Alfred  defeated 
the  Danes.  Romulus  founded  the  city  of  Rome. 
Daniel  Boone  settled  in  Kentucky.  0  Death/where 
is  thy  sting  ! 

(Write  a  short  description  of  the  school  lot.) 

SECTION  II.     NUMBER. 

89.  We  say,  hoy,  boys  ;  man,  men;  hat,  hats; 
the  bird  sings,  the  birds  sing ;  he  writes,  they  write, 

1.  This  difference  in  the  form  of  words  is  called 
number,  and  it  belongs  to  nouns,  pronouns, 
and  verbs.  • 

2.  There  arc  two  forms,  called  the  singular  and 
the  plural. 

3.  Singular  means  one;  plural,  more  than  one. 

90.  There  are  two  ways  of  forming  the  plural 
of  nouns. 

1.  The  first  is  by  adding  a  letter  or  syllable;  as, 
boy,  boys;  box,  boxes;  ox,  oxen. 


46  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  The  second  is  by  changing  the  vowel  of  the 
words;  as,  man,  men;  mouse,  mice. 

3.  The  first  is  called  the  weak  form,  because  it  requires 
an  addition  from  without. 

4.  The  second  is  called  the  strong  form,  because  it  is 
able  to  form  the  plural  within  itself. 

5.  This  was  formerly  more  common  than  now.  For 
example,  Saxon i/reona\  frynd;  gives  English  friend, 
friends;   boc,  bee  ;  book,  books;  tarf,tyrf;   turf,  turfs. 

FORMATION    OF    THE    PLURAL. 

91.  The  plural  is  generally  formed  by  adding  s, 
or  where  that  cannot  be  pronounced  with  the 
word,  by  adding  es;  as,  boy,  hoys;  hill,  hills; 
river,  rivers;  box,  boxes  ;  fox,  foxes;  lash,  lashes; 
church,  churches. 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  x,  z,mss,  sh,  or  eh,  add  es. 

2.  Nouns- ending  in/,  or  fe  change  those  endings 
into  ves;  as,  calf,  calves;  half,  halves;  wife,  wives. 

EXCEPT  nouns  in  ff,  and  gulf,  roof,  hoof,  mischief,  brief 
chief  strife,  fife,  safe,  grief  dwarf  turf  proof  which  add  s. 

3.  jPat  the  end  of  Saxon  words  had  the  sound  of  v, 
hence  the  plurals,  calves,  lives  are  regular,  while  the  sin- 
gular and  the  exceptions  have  changed  the  sound. 

4.  Such  words  as  strife,  fife,  grief  and  so  forth,  take 
the  sharp  sound  of  s  to  distinguish  them  from  strives,  fi ves, 
grieves,  saves,  &c. 

5.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant 
change  y  mio'ies. 

The  singular  of  these  words  formerly  ended  in  ie,  hence 
the  plural  is  regular;  as,  vanitie  vanities)  ladie,  ladies. 

-  6.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  gen- 
erally add  s ;  as,  day,  days ;  valley,  valleys.. 
7.  Proper  names  in  y  preceded  by  a  vowel  are 


FORMATION    OF   THE    PLURAL.  47 

sometimes  formed  in  ies;  as,  the  Maries,  or  the 
Marys. 

8.  Nouns   in  i  generally   add   cs;   as,  alkali, 
alkalies. 

9.  Nouns  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  generally 

add   es;    as,  hero,  heroes;    cargo,  cargoes;  negro, 

negroes. 

Except  junto,  canto,  tyro,  grotto,  portico,  solo,  quarto, 
octavo,  duodecimo,  memento,  which  add  s. 

10.  A  few  nouns  add  n  oven;  as  ox,  oxen;  cow, 
coiven  gives  lane;  sow,  sowen,  swine'. 

In  the  English  dialects  there  are  such  forms  as  shoo, 
shoo n ;  eye,  ci/cn,  or  ei/nc;  house,  houscn  ;  w  elk  en. 

11.  The  strong  plural  is  formed  by  changing 
the  vowel;  as,  man,  men;  woman,  id  omen  ;  tooth, 
teeth;  foot,  feet;  goose,  geese  ;  mouse,  mice;  louse, 
lice. 

12.  Words  which  are  compounds  of  man  form 
their  plurals  in  men;  as,  alderman,  aldermen; 
statesman,  statesmen. 

13.  Those  which  are  not  compounds  of  man 
add  s;  as,  Turcoman,  Turcomans ;  Musselman, 
Musselmans;  talisman,  talismans 

92.  A  few  nouns  have  twro  plurals  writh  differ- 
ent meanings ;  as, 

Brother,  brothers  (of  the  same  family,)  brethren  (of  a 

society.) 

Die,  dies  (for  coining,)  dice  (for  gaming.) 
Fish,  fishes  (in  number  as  twelve,)  fish  (the  species.) 
Fowl,  fowls  (in  number,)  fowl  (the  species.) 
Genius,  geniuses  (men  of  genius,)  genii  ('spirits.) 
Index,  indexes  (tables   of  contents,)  indices  (signs   in 

algebra.) 

Tea,  peas  (in  number,)  pease  (the  species.) 

Penny,  pennies  (coins  in  number.)  pence  (in  value. ) 


48  »  ETYMOLOGY. 

93.  Some  nouns  from  the  nature  of  the  things 
they  represent  have  no  plural. 

They  are,  1.  most  material  nouns;*  as,  gold, 
silver,  wheat,  sugar,  tea,  air,  flour,  &c. 

When  these  denote  varieties  they  may  be  plural; 
as,  the  teas,  the  sugars,  the  wines. 

2.  Most  abstract  nouns;  as,  prudence,  wisdom, 
goodness.  They  are  sometimes  plural  as  when  we 
speak  of  the  virtues,  vices,  courtesies,  $c, 

3.  The  names  of  the  sciences  ;  as,  music,  algebra, 
ethics,  metaphysics,  Sfc.  . 

4.  The  noun  news  is  singular. 

94.  Some  nouns  are  found  only  in  the  plural. 
1.  They  are  such  as  : — 

Annals,  antipodes,  archives,  ashes,  bitters,  boivels, 
clothes,  dregs,  embers,  goods,  literati,  manners,  morals, 
riches,  thanks,  tidings,  ifiages,  $c. 

2.  Also  names  of  such  objects  as  consist  of  two 
parts ;  as,  nippers,  pincers,  scissors,  tongs,  shears, 
snuffers,  compasses,  goggles,  breeches,  Src. 

3.    Horse,    foot,    infantry,   are    also   plural   in 
meaning. 

95.  Some  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both 
numbers ;  as,  deer,  sheep,  trout,  salmon,  cannon,  sail, 
shot,  head,  weight,  means.  * 

Examples.  Twenty  cannon  were  taken.  Fifty  shot  were 
fired.  Ten  sail  of  ships.  Forty  head  of  cattle.  A  hundred 
weight  of  sugar. 

96.  Such  words  as  pair,  brace,  dozen,  score,  when  pre- 
ceded hy  a  numeral  are  singular  in  form,  but  plural  in 
meaning;  as,  three  pairs,  ten  dozen,  five  score, hut  by pairs, 
by  dozens. 

97.  In  compounds,  the  principal  words  take  the  sign  of 
the  plural ;  as,  fathers-in-law,  courts-martial. 

Compounds  without,  a  hyphen  make  the  last  member 


NUMBER. 


49 


plural]  as,  spoonfuls,  outgoings.  Some  words  make  both 
members  plural;  as,  menservants. 

&8.  Words  use. I  merely  as  such  follow  fche  general  rule; 
a  i,  the  ins,  tKe  outs.     "  The  ups  and  ddwns  or  life." 

90.  Letters,  figures,  signs  ami -so  forth,  \  ike  the  apos- 
trophe ami  letter  s;  as,  the  a's,  6's,  c's,  7's,  a/s, 's. 

100.  Usage  is  still  unsettled  as  to  the  plurals  of  complex 

llOUU  s. 

1.  When  they  are  preceded  by  a  numeral  the  noun  is 
made  plural;  as,  "The  two 'Mr.  Browns."    The  noun  with 

takes  the  plural;  as,  "The  Mrs.  Browns." 

2.  Both  title  ami  name  should  not  take  the  plural.  Yvo 
must  say  either  the  Misses  Brown^  or  the  Miss  Browns. 

0.  The  tendency  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  the  former, 
especially  in  respectful  sASdrcss,  while  in  familiar, colloquial 
style  the  latter  prevails. 

4.  A  title  applied  to  more  than  one  person  is  made 
plural;  as,  "Generals  Beauregard  and  Johnston." 

101.  Many  foreign  word  .  i  Lheir  original 
plurals.  Those  in  on  and  um  change  those  endings 
to  a;  those  in  a  to  qe  and  ata  ;  those  in  us,  to  ^and 
era;   those  in  is,  to  es  and  ideh. 

1.  Those  that  retain  their  original  plural  alono 
are: — 

Sing\il  /•. 

Emphasis, 

Ephemenis, 

Erratum, 

Focus, 

:iis,  gem  n 

Hypothesis,     hypo 


Singular.  Plural. 

Alumnus,  alumni. 

Amanuensis,  amanuen 

Analysis,  Analyses 


Antithesis, 

Arcanum, 

Axis, 

Beau, 
Chrysalis, 
is, 

Datum, 

D     idcratum 

Diaeresis, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 


antitheses. 

arcana.. 

axes. 

bases. 

beaux. 

chrysalides 

crises. 

data. 

desiderata. 

diaereses. 

effluvia. 

ellipses. 


emphases. 
ephemeri 

errata, 
foci. 


Ignis  fatuus,  ignes  fatal. 

Lamina,  lamin 

Larv:  .  larvae. 

Metainorpho-  metamorpho- 
sis, ses. 

Miasma,  miasmata. 

Monsieur,  messieurs. 

Nebula,  nebulae. 

Oasis,  oases. 


50 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Singular, 

Parenthesis, 

Phasic. 

Phenomenon, 

Had  ius. 

Scoria, 

Speculum, 

II.  Those 

plural  arc  :— 

Singular. 

Apex, 

Appendix, 

Automaton, 

Bandit, 

Calx, 

Cherub, 

Criterion, 

Dogma, 

Encomium, 

Formula, 

lAmg'US, 

Gymnasium, 

Medium, 

Memorandum, 

Momentum, 

Scholium*, 

Sci  iph, 

Stamen, 


Plural.  Singular,          Plural. 

parentheses.  Stimulus,  stimuli, 

phases.  Stratum,  strata, 

phenomena.  Thesis,  theses. 

radii.  Virtuoso,  virtuosi, 

scoriae.  Vortex,  vortices, 
specula. 

that  have  Loth  an  English  arid  foreign 


Foreign  Plural. 

apices. 

appendixes, 

automatons, 

bandits, 

calxes, 

cherubs, 

criterions, 

dogmas, 

encomiums, 

formulas, 

funguses, 

gymnasiums, 

mediums, 

memorandums, 

momentums, 

scholiums, 

seraphs, 

stamens, 

EXERCISES. 


English  Plural. 

apexes. 
appendices. 

automata. 

banditti. 

calee-. 

cherubim. 

criteria. 

dogmata. 

encdmia. 

formulae. 

fungi. 

gymnasia. 

media. 

memoranda. 

momenta. 

scholia. 

seraphim. 

stamina. 


Model.  TJie  bird  sings.  Bird  is  a  common  noun,  a  general 
name;  third  person,  spoken  of;  singular  number,  denotes 
but  one,  and  is  the  subject  of  sings.  Sings  is* a  verb,  it 
asserts  something;  third  singular  to  agree  with  bird,  by 

Kule  II.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person. 

The  Lird  flies.  Water  flows.  The  mips  fall.  The 
trees  put  forth  their  leaves.  The  rivers  flow  into 
the  sea.     Columbus  was  Lorn  at  Genoa. 


GENDER  •  51 

Form  the  plural  of  tMse  nouns.  Inch,  house,  fox, 
hero,  potato,  loaf,  wife,  knife,  money,  key,  staff, 
muff,  ox,  book,  lady,  chimney,  man,  woman. 

SECTION  III.    GENDER. 

102.  All  living  creatures  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  called  sexes,  male  and  female. 

Nouns  and  pronouns,  with  reference  to  this,  are 
divided  into  three  classes ;  those  representing malesr 
those  representing  females,  and  those  representing 
things  without  life. 

103.  This  distinction  is  called  in  Grammar  gen- 
der.     The  word  gender  means  kind  or  class. 

G  e  nd  e  r  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns 
with  regard  to  sex. 

104.  There  are  three  genders  ;  masculine, 
feminine,  and  neuter. 

The  word  neuter  means  neither. 

1.  The  names  of  males  are  m  asculinc. 

2.  The  names  of  females  arc  feminine. 

3.    The    names    of    things   without   life,    are 
n  e  u  t  c  r . 

105.  A  few  nouns  represent'  persons  or  animals 
that  may  be  either^  male  or  female;  as,  parent, 
friend,  cousin,  deer}  sheep,  fie. 

1.  Their  gender  may  generally  be  known  by  what  if 
laid,  otherwise  they  may  1  •  parsed  as  of  the  "  masculine  or 
feminine  gender." 

2.  They  are  sometimes  said  to  be  of  the  com- 
mon gender;  that  is,  masculine  or  feminine. 

3.  In  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  he  is  mascu- 
line, she  is  feminine,  it  is  neuter. 


52  ETYMOLOGY. 


• 


100.  Sometimes  things  without  life  are  person- 
ified.    Then  they  become  masculine,,  or  feminine. 

This  is  peculiar  to  the  Euglish,  and  adds  much 
to  the  richness  of  the  language. 

1.  In  these  cases,  such  objects  as  possess  strength, 
courage,  majesty,  and  other  manly  attributes,  are  consid- 
ered masculine;  and  those  that  possess  the  attributes  of 
receiving,  containing,  and  which  are  gentle  and  lovely, 
are  considered  feminine. 

'.'.  Thus,  time,  death,  fear,  war,  the  &un,  vrinter,  are  mas- 
culine j  and  peaw,hope,  \  '  m,  spring,  the  e&rthjtihe  moon, 
&c,  feminine. 

3.  IVJost  ahsti  act  nouns  and  the  names  of  countries  ar« 
made^feminine. 

4.  The  same  distinction  ^s  made-  among  animals,  when 
the  species  is  spoken  of;  as,  ''The  lion  takes  up  Am  abode 
in  the  forest."     "The  cat  is  noted  for  her  love  of  home." 

").  When  the  distinction-  of  gender  among  animals  is 
unimportant  they  are  considered  neuter;  as,  I  had  a  kid 
and  sold  it." 

(3.  Infant  children  are  hardly  thought  of  as  persons  and 
are  put  in  the  neuter  gender;  as,  "  The  child  loves  it$ 
mother." 

7.  Masculine  words  are  used  when  reference  is  made  to 
a* profession  which  may  include  both  sexes;  as,  "Poets  are 
entitled  to  the  gratitude  of  the  world." 

8.  But,  when  reference  is  made  to  individuals,  a  dis- 
tinct form  is  u;  cd  for  each  gender;  a  I  m,  the  Poet; 
Mrs.  Hemans,  the  Poet 

107.  S onie  masculine  nouns  have  corresponding 
feminines.     They  are  distinguished  in  three  ways, 
I.  First,  by  different  words. 


Masculine, 

Femi   '    . 

MascvMne. 

Feminine. 

Bachelor, 

maid. 

Drake, 

duck. 

Beau, 

hello. 

Earl, 

countess. 

Boy, 

girl. 

Father, 

mother. 

Brother, 

sister. 

Friar, 

nun. 

Buck, 

doe. 

Gander, 

goose. 

Bull, 

cow. 

Gentlqman, 

lady. 

METHODS    OF    DISTINGUISHING    GENDER. 


53 


Masculine. 

ITart,        roe. 
Horse,      marc. 
Husband,wife. 
King,       queen. 
Lad,  lass. 

Lord,        lady. 


Fcm  inine.        Ma  icidhic. 

Man,  woman.     Sir, 

Master,  mistress.  Son,- 

tcr,  miss.  ig, 

Nephew,  neice.        Steer, 

Pa]  nwrama.    Uncle, 

Ham,  ewe.  Wi 

II.  By  difference  of  termination. 

Masculine.  '   he.        Ma 

Abbot,  abbess.  Hunter, 

Actor,  actress.  Instructor, 

Administrator  administral .  ix  Jew, 
Adulterer,  Itere  Lion, 

Ambassador,    ambassadress.  Marquis, 
Arbiter,  arbitress.        ^NTegro. 

Author,*  authoress.         Patron, 

Baron.  baronei   .  Peer, 

Benefactor,      benefactr^ 

cater  i 

coridi 

countess, 

czarina." 

daupjiin 

deaconc     . 

donna. 

duch 

em  pi 

enchanL 

executrix. 


Feminine. 

madam. 
daughter. 

hind, 
he  iter, 
aunt. 
1,    witch. 


Caterer, 

Conductor, 

Count, 

(•^zar, 

Dauphin, 

Deacon, 

Don, 

Duke, 

Emperor, 

Enchanter, 

Executor, 

Giant,. 

fi  ovemor, 

I  l.'ir, 

I  Fero, 

Host, 


giani 
govern 
heiress. 
heroine. 

host- 


Poet, 

Priest, 

Prior, 

Prince, 

Prophet, 

Protector, 

Shepherd, 

Song 

Sorcerer, 

Sul  (.an, 

Tailor, 

.  itor; 
Tiger, 

»unt, 

IT, 
Widower, 


Feminine. 
huntrei 

instructress. 
Jewess, 
lioness. 
marchioness, 
n  egress, 
patroness, 
peeress. 
;  ess. 
priestess. 
ess. 
princess. 
prophetess, 
protectress, 
shepherdess. 

■  i; --stress. 
sorceress. 
;  altaness. 
feailoress. 
testatrix. 

■ess. 

voter 
widow. 


III.  By  composition  or  by  prefixing  words. 


H.i 

He-bear, 
He-goat, 
Landlord, 
M  ale, 


Pride. 
gentle  w 

she-bear, 
she-goat. 

landlady. 

female, 


Manservant,  maidservant. 
M  tlo-child,  female-child. 
Merman,  Mermaid- 

Schoolmaster,  schoolmistress, 

and  some  others. 


54  ETYMOLOGY. 

A  few  words  arc  used  only  in  the  feminine  ;  as, 
amazon,  brunette*  dowager,  shrew,  syren,  virago  ; 
and  some  only  in  tbc  masculine;  as,  baker,  brewer. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Trees  grow.  Trees  is  a  common  noun,  a  gene- 
ral name;  third  person,  spoken  of;  plural  number  means 
more  than  one;  neuter  gender,  neither  male  nor  female, 
and  is  the  subject  of  grow. 

The  time  Las  come.  The  snow  falls.  The  cat 
watches  for  her  prey.  The  ship  is  receiving  her 
load.  James  gave  a  hook  to  his  mother.  Earth 
with  her  thousand  voiced  praises  God.  Qf  law  no 
less  can  he  acknowledged  than  that  her  scat  is  the 
bosom  of  God;  her  voice,  the  harmony  of  tho 
world. 

Write  six  sentences  upon  any  subject;  as,  a  horse,  or 
dog.     Let  the  teacher  give  subjects. 

SECTION  IV.     CASE. 

108.  I  may  say,  "John  writes,"  "  John's  horse 
runs,"  " James  teaches  John,"  "he  gave  John  a 
book,"  and  "John,  come  to  me." 

Here  the  noun  John  appears  in  different  rela- 
tions:  first,  as  subject;  second,  as  the  jvossessor ; 
third,  as  the  direct  object;  -fourth,  as  the  indirect 
object;  fifth,  as  the  person  addressed}. 

These  relations  are  called  cases. 

109.  Cases  are  the  different  relations  which 
nouns  and  pronouns  have  to  other  words  in  the 
same  proposition. 

English    Grammarians   usually   reckon   three 


CASES.  65 

cases   in  propositions ;    the  norainativo,  pos- 
sessive, and  objective. 

110.  The  noun  denoting  the  person  or«thing  addressed 
docs  not  belong  to  the  proposition.  In  other  languages  it 
13  said  to  be  in  the  vocative  ease,  which  is  the  most 
suitable  term  in  English,  and  it  will  be  used  in  this  book. 

The  indirect  object,  or  that  to  or  for  which 
anything  is  done,  now  has  the  same  form  as  the  direct, 
and  is  usually  said  to  be  in  thg  same  case.  It  is  properly 
in  the  Dative  case,  and  may  bo  so  parsed. 

111.  The  No  m  i  n  a  t  i  v  c  case  is  the  subject  of 
the  proposition  ;    as,  John  reads.    He  sings. 

112.  The  Possessive  case  denotes  posses- 
sion, origin,  and  fitness^  or  design;  as,  Johtfs  hat; 
The  suns  rays,  that  is,  rays  proceeding  from  tbo 
eun  ;  Men's  shoes,  that  is,  shoes  designed  for  men, 

113.  The,  0  b  j  e  c  t  i  v  c  case  is  the  object  of  an 
action  ;  as  James  teaches  John,  I  esteem  him. 

It  is  also  the  complement  of  a  preposition  ;  as, 
James,  come  with  me.     He  is  in  the  house. 

114.  The  Dative  case  denotes  that  to  or  for  which 
anything  is  or  is  done;  as,  He  gave  we *a book.* 

115.  The  Vocative  ease  denotes  the  person 
or  thing  addressed;  as,  Ilary,  come  here. 

It  is  variously  called  the  Nominative  case  independent, 
the  independent  case,  and  the  case  absolute. 
The  term  vocative  is  the  most  consistent. 

116.  C  a  s  c  properly  refers  to  the  change  of  termination 
in  (he  word;  as,  in  the  Saxon  smith  a  smith.  Nominative 
sjiiith,  Genitive,  smithes  of  a  smith  or  smith's,  Dative 
itnithe  to  a  smith,  Ace.  or  objective  smith. 

117.  In  English  nouns  the  forms  of  the  cases 

^  *Thc  definition  of  the  Dative  is  inserted  for  the  conve- 
nience of  those  who  may  wish  to  use  it. 


56  ETYMOLOGY. 

are  nearly  all  lost.  Their  relations  instead  of  being 
shown  by  endings  are  now  shown  by  position,  or 
by  propositions. 

FORMS    OE   THE    CASES. 

118.  The  ISTom  i'n  ati  v  c  has  the  simple  form 
of  the  noun  and  may  be  determined  by  asking  the 
question  who?  or  what?;  as,  "John  runs."  Who 
runs?  Ans,  John.    John  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

119.  The  Possessive  case  singular  is  formed 
by  adding  the  apostrophe  (')  and  s ;  as,  in  John's 
hat. 

The  apostrophe  takes  the  place  of  the  omitted  e  as  in 
smithes  smith's,  marines,  man's. 

1.  When  the  .9  will  not  unite  easily  with  the 

word,  the  apostrophe  only  is  added;    as,  for  con- 
science' sake,  Hoses'  hat,  Thetis'  son. 

It  is  said  that  in  the  majority  of  such* cases,  hitherto  the 
custom  has  been  to  add  the  s;  as,  James'*  hat,  Eras- 
mus's dialogues.  Cottin's's  odes.  The'  tendency  now  is  to 
reject  it. 

2.  When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  apostrophe 
only  is  added  ;  as,  The  boys'  boohs.  The  (/ids'  pica/, 
A  When  the  plural  does  not  end  in  s,  the  possess- 
ive is  formed  as  in  the  singular;  as  men's  hats. 

120.  The  direct  Objective  may  be  determined 
by  asking  whom  ?  or  what  ?;  as,  "He  cuts  wood." 
What  does  he  cut  ?  Ans.  wood.  Wood  is  in  the 
objective. 

121.  The  indirect  object  or  Dative  by  asking  to 
or  for  ichom ;   as,    "  He  gave  me  a  book."     To 


DECLENSION    OF    NOUtfS.  57 

whom  did  he  give  it  $  Ana.  me.     Me  is  the  indirect 
or  Dative  object.* 

122.  The  locative  is  known  b}*  being  the 
name  of  the  person  or  tiling  addressed. 

The  Nominative,  Objective,  Dative,  and  Voca- 
tive, now  have  the  same  form. 

Form  the  Possessive  case  of  these  nouns.  Boy, 
fox,  man,  James,  horse,  boys,  men,  house,  Will- 
iam, Henry. 

123.  Nouns  are  thus  declined: 

Singular.        Singular.  Plural.  Sin.      Plu. 

Nom.:  John,    Nbm.,  Boy,      Nbm.,  Boys,  Man,     M-en, 

Poss..  John's,  Pass.,  Boy's,    Poss.,  Boys',  Man's,  Men's, 

ObJ.,  John.       ObJ.,  iioy;        0>>j.,  Boys.  Man;     Men. 

The  Objective  and  Dative  eases  have  now  the  same 
form. 

Decline   in    the   same   manner: — Girl,    house? 

child,  son,  heir,  lady,  book,  friend,  king,  queen, 

Jane,  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  William,  James's  sister  has  given  me  a 
book. 

After  the  pupil  has  become  perfectly  familiar  with  the  rea- 
sons for  each  particular,  they  may  be  omitted. 

William  is  a  proper  noun,  masculine,  second,  singular, 
and  in  the  vocative  case,  by 

Rule  XXV.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed 
is  put  '11  thi  voc  itivi . 

James's  is  a  proper  noun,  masculine,  third,  singular, 
possessive  case,  il  |!-  notes  possession  and  limits  sister,  by 

llule  V.    TJienoun  or   pronoun  limiting  another  noun  or 

*  Notf.  The  teacher  »ay  use*  his  own  judgment  about. the 
use  of  the  Dative.  The  direct  and  indirect  objects  have  a  dis- 
tinct and  separate  existence,  and  must  be  distinguished  from 
each  other  in  analysis.     I  prefer  to  use  the  Dative. 


58  ETYMOLOGY; 

pronoun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing  is  p>ut  in  th* 
possessive  case. 

JSister  is  a  common  noun,  feminine,  third,  singular, 
nominative  case,  it  is  the  subject  of  has  given,  by 

Rule  I.  The  subject  of  the  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

Book  and  me  are  parsed  by  rules  X  and  XII, 
John's  horse  runs.  My  father  comes.  Susan's 
mother  calls.  The  sun's  rays  scorch.  James's 
sister  has  come\  Arnold's  treason  disgraced  his 
name.  Joseph's  father  mourned  for  him.  The 
eagle's  talons  seized  the  prey.  William  gave  his 
brother  a  book. 

'    '  EXERCISE   IN    ANALYSIS. 

Horse  is  the  subject,  it  is  that  of  which  some- 
thing is  said.  It  is  modified  by  John's.  Hans  is 
the  predicate,  it  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject 
Analyze  the  remaining  sentences. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


PRONOUNS. 


124.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word- used  instead  of  a 
noun.     Or,  in  reference  to  the  proposition  : 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word,  which  is  not  the  name 
of  an  object,  but  which  may  be  used  instead  of  9 
noun. 

They  are  something  more*  than  mere  substitutes-  for 
nouns.  Nouns.are  names  of  objects  without  the  power 
in  themselves  of  expressing  relations.  Pronouns  are 
substitutes  for  them,  and  possess  in  addition  the  power  of 


PERSONAL    PRONOUNS.  59 

expressing  relations.     As  such,  they  express  the  rclati^i 
of  objects  to  the  speaker;  as,  this,  that,  he,  it,  &c. 

125.  1  marks  the  speaker  himself  as  independ- 
ant  and  separate  from  all  other  objects.  It  stands 
for  no  noun  and  is  a  substantive  in  itself,  that  is,  it 
exists  by  itself. 

Thou  marks  the  person  addressed.  It  also 
stands  for  no  noun,  and  is  a  substantive. 

The  remaining  pronouns  are  substitutes  for 
nouns. 

The  oblique  forms  of  pronouns  f<  rm  ihc  ca^e  endings 
of  nouns  and  the  personal  encfi  ••  of  verbs,  where  they 
exist.  In  this  way  only  nouns  and  verbs  express  relations. 
Pronouns  point  out  the  position  of  objects  and  Uio 
direction  of  motion  and  hence  furn  sh  many,  of  the  adverbs 
and  conjunctions;  as,  here,  there,  where,  than,  then, 'thither, 
whither,  dr. 

126.  That  to  which  a  pronoun  refers  is  called  its 
antecedent.     Antecedent  means  going  before. 

127.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  Personal, 
P o s s e s si  v e ,  I n  t e r r og at i  v e,  II  c  1  a  t  i  v  e  , 
and  Definitive . 

SECTION  I.     PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

128.  Personal  pronouns  arc  those  that  show 
by  their  form  of  what  person  they  arc. 

They  arc  I,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  and  it. 
J  represents  the  first  person,  thou  or  you  the 
second,  he,  she,  and  it  the  third. 

129.  J,  audihou  or  you,  are  substantive  pronouns, 
that  is  they  represent  persons  themselves. 

180.  He.  she,  and  it,  arc  demonstratives,  that  is, 
they  point  out  precisely  the  objects  to  which  they 


60  ETYMOLOGY. 

relate ;  as,  lie  is  the  man,  she  is  the  woman,  or  it 
is  the  thing  that  you  seek. 

He  is  masculine,  she  feminine,  it  neuter. 

The  first  and  second  persons  have  no  form  to 
sh  w  their  gender,  since  they  are  always  present 
and  their  gender  is  known. 

131.  The  substantive  pronouns  are  thus  declined. 

For  the  sake  of  comparison  T  insert  (.lie  corresponding 
Anglo-Saxon  forms. 

Singular.  j  I  nglo-  Si  ixon 

Nbm.,  I   Than,  Common  form,  You,  Nbm.,  Ic,  Thu, 

Poss.,  My,  Thy  :  Your,  Poss.,  Min,Thin, 

Obj.,  Me,  Thee,  You,  Obj.,  Me,  The', 

Dat.j  Me;  Thee;  You,  1>"  ;  The; 

Plural. 

Nam.,  We,  Ye,  Common  form,  You,  Norn.,  W>e,  (JS, 

Poss.,  Our,  Tour,  Your,  Poss.,  Ure,  Eower, 

Obj.,  Us,  You,  You,  Obj.,  Us,  Eow, 

Dat.,  Cs,  You.  You.  DaL,  Us,  Eow. 

132.  Some  grammarians  give  two  forms  of  tho  possess- 
ive case,  as  my  or  mine,  thy  or  thine,  your  or  yours. 

Others  consider  my,  #&y,  cfcc,  the  true  possessive  cases, 
and  others  still  restrict  the  possessive  case  to  mine,  &p. 

My  and  mine,  thy  and  £fafne  are  supposed  to'be  of  the 
same  origin  from  min,  thin,  though  there  is  some  uncer- 
tainty. • 

133.  My  and  thy  now  perform  the  office  of 
the  possessive  case  ;  as,  Johns  hat,  my  bat. 

Mine  and  thine  are  sometimes  nscd  in  solemn 
style,  and  in  poetry  as  possessive,  cases;  as,  "I 
kept  myself  from  mine  iniquity,"  Ps.  18:  23. 
"Mine  hour  is  not  yet  come."  John  2 :  4.  "God 
stay  thee  in  thine  agony  my  boy". — Willis. 

134.  Ye  is  sometimes  used  as  the  objective  plu- 
ral, bat  it  is  not  the  proper  form. 

135.*'  Thou  is  now  used  only  in  addressing  the 


♦ 


PERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  61 

Deity,  in  the  Scriptures,  in  solemn  and  impas- 
sioned writings,  and  among  the  Friends. 

It  is  also  employed  in  contemptuous  expressions; 
as,  "Thou  slave,  thou  wretch,  thou  coward," 

"  Thou  little  valiant,  great  in  villainy." 

136.  You  is  now  employed  both  in  the  singular 
and  plural. 

137.  We  is  much  used  by  editors,  authors,  and 
in  royal  proclamations  for  the  singular. 

Its  frequent  use  is  not  to  be  encouraged,  as,  where  there 
is  not  an  actual  association  in  office,  it  shows  a  want  of 
manly  independence. 

138.  Declension  of  the  third  person  he,  she,  it 

Singular.  Anglo-Saxon. 

Nbm.,  He,  She,  It,  Norn.,  He,  Heo,  Hit, 

Poss.,  His,  Her,  Its,  Poss.    His,  Hire,  His, 

Obj.,  Him,  Her,  It,  Obj.,  Hine,  Hi,  Hit, 

{Dat.,  Him;  Her;  It;)  Dat.,  Him;  Hire;  Him; 

Plural.  Plural. 

Norn.,  They,  They,  They,      Norn.,  Hi,    Old  Eng.,  Hi, 
Poss.,  Their,  Their,  Their,     Poss.,  Hira,  Hir, 

Obj.,  Them,  Them,  Them.      Obj.,  Hi,  Hi, 

{Dat.,  Them.  Them.  Them.)  Dat.,  Him.  Hem. 

139.  Our  plural  is  from  the  plural  of  the  Saxon  article, 
which  is  Nom.,  Tha,  Gen.,  Thara,  Obj.,  Tha.,  Dat., 
TUain. 

She  is  supposed  to  be  from  the  feminine  of  the  article 
which  is  seo.  It  is  from  hit.  His  continued  to  be  used 
as  the  possessive  case  of  its,  until  the  17th  century,  when 
a  new  possessive,  its,  was  formed  from  it.  Its  is  not  found 
in  the  standard  version  of  the  Bible. 

Example.     "  Learning  hath  his  infancy  when  it  is  but 
beginnfhg,  then  h  is  youth  when  it  is  luxuriant  and  juve- 
.nile,"  &c. — Bacon. 

140.  Myself,  Thyself,  himself,  herself,  itself,  with 
6 


62  ETYMOLOGY. 

their  plurals   ourselves,  yourselves,  themselves,  are 
compound  personal  pronouns. 

1.  They  are  joined  to  nouns  and  pronouns  to 
make  them  more  emphatic ;  as,  "I myself."  "The 
mountains  themselves  decay  with  years." 

2.  They  are  also  used  when  the  subject  and  ob- 
ject are  the  same  person;  as.  "I  blame  myself." 
"She  admires  herself."  They  are  then  called 
Reflexive  pronouns. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  /  study  my  lesson.  I  is  a  personal  pronoun,  it 
points  out  the  person,  substantive  kind;  first  person  it  de- 
notes the  speaker;  singular  number,  means  but  one; 
nominative  case,  it  is  the  subject  of  study,  by  Rule  I. 

John  sent  his  sister  a  present.  James  gave  his 
mother  a  book.  Spring  with  its  flowers  will  come 
again.  The  ship  has  completed  her  voyage.  Mary 
and  her  sister  are  coming  to  our  house.  Industry 
and  sobriety  make  their  possessors  respected  and 
happy.  Remember  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of 
thy  youth. 

SECTION  II.  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 

141.  The  Possessive  pronouns  are  those 
which  stand  for  nouns  and,  at  the  same  time,  denote 
pessession. 

1.  They  are  mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  its,  ours,  yours, 
theirs. 

2.  His  and  its  are  the  same  as  the  possessive 
cases    of  the   personal    pronouns.      Hers,9 ours, 
yours,  theirs,  are  formed  from  the  possessive  cases  ■ 
by  adding  s. 


KELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  t>3 

3.  They  are  used  in  the  nominative  and  ob- 
jective cases  ;  as,  "  The  book  is  mine,  hers  is  lost, 
but  he  has  found  his." 

SECTION  III.  INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS 

142.  Interrogative  pronouns  are  those  used 
in  asking  questions;  as,  "  Who  is  your  friend?  " 

1.  They  are  ivho,  which,  and  what. 

2.  Who  is  used  in  reference  to  persons ;  which 
and  what  in  reference  either  to  persons  or  things. 

3.  Who  is  always  used  without  a  noun  or  sub- 
stantively ;  which  and  what  are  also  used  as  adjec- 
tives; as,  "  Which  book  are  you  reading?"  "  What 
man  is  that?  "    , 

I.  Interrogatives  refer  to  a  noun  or  pronoun 
following  them  called  the  consequent;  as  "  whoso 
hat  is  this?  "  Ans.  John's.    Whose  refers  to  John's. 

5.  Whether,  meaning  which  of  the  two,  was  for- 
merly in  use ;  as,  "  Whether  is  greater  the  gold 
or  the  temple  "  &c. 

SECTION  IV.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

143.  " He,  who  is  coming,* is  the  man."  "He 
is  the  man  "  is  the  principal  proposition.  "Who 
is  coming,"  is  a  clause  modifying  he  like  an  adjec- 
tive. 

Who  relates  to  he  and  connects  its  clause  with  it. 
It  is  called  a  relative  pronoun. 

144.  The  Relative  pronouns  are  who,  which, 
that,  what,  and  as. 

1.  The  clause  in  which  they  stand  is  called  the 
relative  clause  and  it  is  always  a  subordinate  or 
modifying  proposition. 


64  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  They  can  never  stand  in  principal  proposi- 
tions, while  personal  pronouns  can. 

145.  Relative  pronouns  are  those  that  relate  to 
antecedents  and  connect  their  clauses  with  the 
principal  propositions. 

1.  Who,  which  and  what  are  the  interrogative  pronouns 
used  as  relatives. 

2.  What  is  the  neuter  of  ivho.  Which  is  a  compound 
word  formed  of  who,  Saxon,  hwa  and  lie,  huilic,  Scotch 
whilk,  which.* 

3.  In  "the  work  which,"  "that  man  who,"  the  noun 
is  first  rendered  definite  by  the  article,  or  some  definitive 
adjective  expressed  or  understood,  and  the  relative  relates 
to  this  noun  thus  defined.  The  limiting  word  is  called  a 
correlative. 

Example.  "  The  man  who."  The  is  the  correlative; 
and  who  relates  to  the  concrete  term  thus  defined,  "  the 
man." 

146.  TJiat  is  the  oldest  of  the  relative  pronouns 
and  may  be  used  in  tire  place  ofivho  or  which. 

Who  and  which  became  relatives  as  the  Saxon  was  pass- 
ing into  Old  English. 

147.  Who  relates  to  persons  and  is  never  used 
as  an  adjective. 

148.  Which  relates  to  animals  and  things  and 
may  be  used  as  an  adjective;  as,  for  which  reason. 
It  formerly  related  to  persons  also;  as,  "Our 
Father,  which  art  in  Heaven." 

149.  As  is  used  as  a  relative  after  many,  such, 

*The  Saxons  used  the  article  se,  seo,  thaet  for  the  relative.  "Ic, 
geendode  thaet  weorc  thaet  thu  me  sealdest  to  donne."  I  have 
finished  the  work  which  thou  gavest  me  to  do.  Literally,  the 
work  the.  ''Ealle  tha  thing  the  ge  wytton  thaet  menn  eoio  don, 
doth  ge  hym  thaet  sylfe."  Literally,  "  All  the  things  which  ye 
will  that  men  do  to  you,  do  ye  to  them  that  self." 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  65 

and  same;  as,  "  Such  as  come  "  is  equal  to  "  those 
who  come.' 

150.  The  relatives  have  the  same  form  in  both 
numbers  and  are  thus  declined: — 

Nbm.,  Who,  Pass.,  Whose,  0fc/.,  Whom. 

"       Which;  "       Whose,  "     Which. 

"      That,  "  "     That. 

"      What,  "  "     What. 

'  That,  the  original  relative,  has  no  possessive 
now  existing.  Whose  may  be  used  for  it  when 
needed. 

What  is  used  as  a  relative  in  both  numbers;  aa 
"This  is  what  is   wanted."     "These   books  are 
tohat  are  wanted." 

It  is  also  used  as  an  adjective.  "It  matters  not 
ivhat  names  are  used."  It  is  sometimes  used  in- 
definitely ;  as,  "He cares  not  what  he  says." 

161.  What  is  usually  parsed  as  a  compound  rel- 
ative equivalent  to  that  which;  as,  "I  know  what 
you  desire."  "I  know  that  which  you  desire:" 
that  as  the  antecedent  and  object  of  know,  which 
as  the  relative  and  object  of  desire. 

Others  parse  it  as  the  object  of  both  verbs, 
without  supposing  it  to  represent  two  words. 

It  is  simpler  and  more  consistent  with  the  struc- 
ture of  propositions,  to  parse  the  clauses  contain- 
ing what  and  similar  words  as  wholes,  subjects  or 
objects  of  the  propositions  ;  as,  "What  you  desire  " 
is  the  object  of  know,  and  "what"  the  object 
of  desire. 


66  ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  The  hoy,  who  studies,  will  learn.  "The  boy 
will  learn  "  is  the  principal  clause.  "  Who  studies  "  is  the 
relative  clause.  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  it  relates  to 
boy  and  unites  the  clauses ;  third,  singular  to  agree  with 
boy,  by  Rule  IX  ;  nominative  case  and  subject  of  studies 
by  Rule  I.      The  is  its  correlative. 

The  man,  whom  I  saw,  has  gone.  He  is  the 
man  that  I  saw.  The  man  whose  house  I  saw  is 
a  merchant.  He  whom  I  loved  is  dead.  Will  not 
those  who"  raise  envy  incur  censure  ?  They  did 
what  they  could.     Such  as  I  have  I  give  you. 

SECTION  V.    DEFINITIVE  PRONOUNS. 

152.  Definitive  pronouns  are  those  that 
are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives  to  define  nouns; 
as,  this  man;  and  sometimes  as  pronouns;  as, 
"  2 his  is  mine." 

They  are  divided  into  demonstratives,  distributives , 
and  indefinites. 

153.  Demonstrative  pronouns  point  out 
precisely  the  things  to  which  they  relate. 

1.  They  are,  this,  that,  these,  those,  former  and 
latter. 

2.  This  and  these  refer  to  the  nearest  persons  or 
things,  that  and  those  to  the  most  distant. 

3.  Former  refers  to  the  first  mentioned,  latter  to 
the  last  mentioned  object. 

154.  Distributive  pronouns  point  out  sepa- 
rately the  objects  which  they  represent. 

1.  They  are  each,  every,  either,  and  neither. 

2.  Each  refers  to  all  the  individuals  taken  sep- 
arately; as,  "Each  dreamed  his  dream," 


DEFINITIVE   PRONOUNS.  67 

3.  Every  has  a  similar  meaning  but  more  em- 
phatic. 

4.  Either  denotes  one  of  two.  Neither  means 
not  either. 

155.  The  Indefinite  pronouns  are  those  that 
are  used  in  an  indefinite  manner. 

1.  They  are  some,  one,  all,  such,  none,  several, 
another,  other,  both,  few,  own,  much,  many,  same. 

2.  They  are  generally  used  as  adjectives  and  are 
pronouns  only  when  used  without  a  noun. 

3.  One,  other,  and  another  are  declined, — 
Nom.  Sing.,  One;  Poss.,  one's;   Obj.9  one.  Nom. 

Plu.,  ones  ;  Pass.,  ones';   Ohj.,  ones. ' 

156.  Such  forms  as  each  other,  one  another  are 
called  Reciprocal  pronouns. 

They  are  treated  as  compounds  and  form  their 
possessives  as  such  ;  as,  each  other's,  one  another's* 

"Bear  one  another's  burdens."  That  is,  let 
one  bear  the  other's  burdens.  "  They  praise  each 
other."  Each  is  in  apposition  with  they,  and 
other  the  object  of  praise. 

157.  Whoever,  whichever,  whatever,  ivhoso,  ivhoso- 
evcr,  whatsoever  are  called  Compound  Rela- 
tives. 

They  are  parsed  like  what ;  as  '-"Whoever  studies, 
"will  learn,"  u  whoever  studies,"  is  the  subject  of 
will  learn,  and  "vihoever"  the  subject  cf  studies, 

EXERCISES. 

Your  pleasures  are  past,  mine  are  to  come. 
The  mountains  themselves  decay  with  years.  He 
blames  me  a^d  I  reproach  myself.  A  city  that  is 
set  on  a  hill  cannot  be  hid.   What  time  remained 


68  ETYMOLOGY. 

was  well  employed.  You  wrong  yourself.  He 
told  what  he  saw.  I  believe  what  he  says.  The 
Lord  chastens  whomsoever  he  loves.  These  "books 
are  mine,  those  are  yours. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

ADJECTIVES. 

158.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  nouns 
and  pronouns  to  modify  them. 

It  does  this  by  describing  or  defining  the  objects 
for  which  they  stand ;  as,  "  The  tree  is  tall"  "This 
book  is  mine." 

It  may  with  the  verb  to  be  form  the  predicate  of 
a  proposition,  but  cannot  of  itself  form  the  subject. 

It  is  intermediate  between  the  noun  and  verb.  The 
verb  expresses  both  the  predicate  and  predication,  that  is 
it  asserts  what  is  predicated  with  reference  to  some  subject. 
The  adjective  expresses  the  predicate  only  and  does  not 
assert. 

The  adjective  says  "  the  flower-blooming;"  the  verb, 
"  the  flower  blooms." 

If  it  could  be  connected  at  once  with  the  subject,  it 
would  become  a  verb. 

159.  That  it  may  be  predicated  of  the  subject 
the  copula  be  is  used  ;  as,  "  The  sun  is  bright." 

The  primary  use  of  the  adjective  is  to  express 
the  predicate.  When  we  know  that  "  an  apple  is 
sweet,"  we  may  speak  of  it  as  "a  sweet  apple"  or 
use  it  in  an  attributive  sense. 

160.  Like  the  noun  the  adjective  is  a  name^but  the  name 
of  an  attribute,  not  of  an  object 


DESCRIPTIVE   ADJECTIVES.  69 

1.  Some  adjectives  express  the  predicate  only;  as,  alike 
alone,  awake,  aware,  mindful,  worth. 

2.  Some  are  rarely  used,  except  as  attributes ;  as,  daily, 
hourly,  golden,  theivish,  paternal,  fraternal,  &c. 

161.  In  respect  to  form  adjectives  are  divided 
into  two  classes. 

1.  First,  those  that  are  primitive  and  fix  the 
mind  upon  the  property  they  describe*  as,  good, 
hind,  dear,  green,  soft,  bright,  $c. 

2.  Second,  those  that  are  derivatives  and  refer 
the  mind  to  their  origin  ;  as,  wooden,  fatherly,  tire- 
some, seemly,  lovely,  faithless,  witty,  kc. 

162.  In  use  adjectives  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  those  that  describe  ;  as,  a  sweet  apple,  and 
those  that  define;   as,  thisr apple,  ten  apples. 

SECTION  I.      DESCRIPTIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

163.  Descriptive  adjectives  are  used  to  de- 
scribe or  point  out  the  qualities  of  objects;  as, 
tall  trees,  good  men,  sweet  flowers. 

1.  The  noun  with  the  adjective  compares  with  the  noun 
without  the  adjective,  as  the  proper  with  the  common 
noun.  The  adjective  distinguishes  individuals  from  the 
class;  as,  the  oak  tree,  the  sweet  apple,  the  good  man. 

2.  It  is  sometimes  a  mere  epithet;  as,  cruel 
tyrants,  cruel  rulers,  &c. 

164.  To  descriptive  adjectives  belong  proper 
adjectives,  or  those  derived  from  proper  names  ; 
as,  Roman,  American ;  and  verbal  adjectives,  or 
those  derived  from  verbs ;  as,  enduring  friendship, 
a  learned  man. 

1.  The  adjective  is'  sometimes  used  as  a  noun, 
as  good  and  evil,  right  and  wrong,  the  chief  good. 


70  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  So  when  the  is  used  with  it;  as,  the  rich,  the 
poor,  the  beautiful,  the  true,  the  good. 

SECTION  II.      DEFINITIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

165.  Definitive  adjectives  are  used  to  define  or 
limit  the  meaning  of  nouns ;  as,  this  man,  that 
horse,  ten  books. 

They  are  divided  into  numeral  and  pronominal 
adjectives. 

166.  Numerals  are  words  used  in  counting, 
and  are  of  two  kinds,  cardinals  and  ordinals. 

1.  The  Cardinals  denote  how  many;  as, 
one,  two. 

2.  The  Ordinals  denote  which  one ;  as,  first, 
second. 

3.  The  leading  cardinals,  ordinals  and  numeral 
adverbs  are  : —     '"' 

Cardinals.         Ordinals.  Humeral  Adverbs. 

One,  First,  Once,  Firstly, 

Two,  Second,  Twice,  Secondly, 

Three,  Third,  Thrice,  Thirdly, 

Four,  &c.,  Fourth,  &c,  Four  times, &c,    Fourthly, 

Ten,  Tenth,  Ten  times,  Tenth  ly, 

Twenty-one,  Twenty-first.  Twenty-onetimes  Twenty-first. 

167.  The  pronominal  adjectives  are  those 
that  are  sometimes  used  as  pronouns. 

1.  They  are  divided  into  demonstratives,  dis- 
tributives, and  indefinites. 

2.  The  demonstratives  are  this,  that,  these, 
those,  former,  latter,  yon,  yonder. 

3.  The  distributives  are  each,  every,  either, 
neither. 

4.  The  indefinites  are  chiefly  all,  any,  both, 


COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES.  71 

another,  other,  few,  many,  much,  no,  none,  oivn,  some, 
same,  several,  such,  ivhole. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  The  good  man  is  happy.  Good  is  a  descriptive 
adjective,  it  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  to  describe  it  and 
modifies  man,  by 

Rule  VI.  Adjectives  modify  nouns  and  pronouns. 

Each  is  a  definitive  adjective,  it  is  joined  to  a  noun  to 
define  it;  distributive  it  limits  objects  taken  singly,  and 
modifies  man  by  Rule  VI. 

Each  man  was  six  feet  high.  The  virtuous 
man  will  be  rewarded.  The  river  is  broad  and 
deep.  Every  man  must  render  an  account  for 
himself.  Caasar  was  a  brave  and  skillful  general. 
You  can  take  either  road.  Let  another  man  praise 
thee  and  not  thine  own  mouth. 

SECTION  III.     COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

168.  Descriptive  adjectives  receive  a  change  of 
termination  called  comparison. 

I  may  say  a  tall  man,  a  taller  man,  the  tallest 
man. 

169.  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison. 

1.  The  first  is  the  simple  or  positive  state,  tall. 

2.  It  describes  without  comparison. 

Except  that  every  adjective  distinguishes  the  object  it 
modifies  from  others  of  the  same  class;  as,  the  wise  man 
in  distinction  from  men  in  general. 

3.  The  second  is  the  comparative  degree,  taller. 

4.  It  expresses  a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  qual- 
ity than  the  positive  and  makes  a  comparison 
between  two. 


72  ETYMOLOGY. 

5.  It  is  formed  by  adding  r  or  er  to  the  positive. 

6.  The  third  is  the  superlative  degree,  tallest. 

7.  It  expresses  the  highest  or  lowest  degree,  and 
makes  a  comparison  between  three  or  more. 

8.  It  is  formed  by  adding  st  or  est  to  the  positive. 
170.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable  and  many  of  more 

than  one  are  thus  compared : — 


POSITIVE. 

COMPARATIVE. 

SUPERLATIVE. 

High, 

higher, 

highest. 

Sweet, 

sweeter, 

sweetest. 

Happy, 

happier, 

happiest. 

Compare  in  this  manner: — long,  safe,  light, 
heavy,  broad,  great,  large,  hot,  noble,  able,  lofty. 

171.  Most  long  words  are  compared  by  means  of 
more  and  most ;  as,  beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most 
beautiful. 

172.  Diminution  of  quality  is  expressed  by  less 
and  least ;  as,  less  beautiful,  least  beautiful. 

The  ending  ish  expresses  a  slight  degree  of  qual- 
ity ;  as,  blackish,  somewhat  black  ;  sweetish,  a  little 
sweet. 

173.  A  high  degree  of  quality  is  expressed  by 
adding  intensive  words ;  as,  very  dark,  extremely 
cold,  exceedingly  industrious. 

'     This  is  called  the  superlative  of  eminence. 

174.  A  few  adjectives  are  defective  in  some  of 
their  degrees,  which  are  supplied  by  other  words 
as,  good,  better,  best.  Good  is  defective  in  the  com- 
parative and  superlative,  better  in  the  positive.  Bet 
is  found  in  Saxon  as  an  adverb  meaning  better. 
Best  is  for  betst. 

They  are : — 


COMPARISON    OF   ADJECTIVES.  73 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative 

Good, 

better, 

best- 

Bad,  ill  or  evil, 

worse, 

worst. 

Much,  or  many, 

nrore, 

most. 

Little, 

less,  or  lesser, 

least. 

A    few  adjectives   are   irregular   but  not  de- 
fective; as, 


Aft, 

after. 

aftermost. 

Far, 

farther, 

farthest. 

Fore. 

former, 

loremost,  first. 

(Forth 

,) 

further, 

furthest. 

Hind, 

hinder, 

hindmost,  hindermost 

Late, 

later, 

latest,  or  last- 

Low, 

lower, 

lowest,' lowermost. 

Near, 

nearer, 

nearest,  next. 

176.    Some  adjectives   add   most  to  form   the 
superlative;  as,  hind,  hinder,  hindermost. 

177.  Some  are  defective  in  the  positive  forming 
their  comparative  and  superlative  from  adverbs;  as, 


(Out,) 

outer,  or 

utter, 

outmost,  utmost. 

(I«0 

inner, 

innermost,  inmost. 

hither. 

hithermost. 

[(Bc)neath,] 

nether, 

nethermost. 

under, 

undermost. 

Ft  ear, 

rearmost. 

Like  rear  are  compared,  front,  mid,  middle,  north, 
south,  cast,  west,  northern,  southern,  eastern,  western* 

178.  In  the  double  forms,  much  is  used  in  speak- 
ing of  quantity,  many  of  number;  nearest  is  used 
in  reference  to  place;  next,  to  time;  later  and 
latest,  in  reference  to  time ;  latter  and  last,  to 
order ;  further  means  more  in  front ;  farther,  more 
distant. 

179.    A  few  descriptive  adjectives  cannot  be 


i 


74  ETYMOLOGY 

compared ;  as,  Almighty,  chief,  circular,  continual, 
dead,  empty,  everlasting,  eternal,  false,  free,  infinite, 
natural,  perfect,  solid,  sound,  square,  free,  $c. 

1.  Some  of  these  are  used  by  good  writers  in 
different  degrees,  as  "A  more  perfect  resem- 
blance," &c. 

2.  In  fact  these  words  do  not  express  absolute 
ideas,  but  only  approximate,  so  that  they  may 
sometimes  admit  of  degrees. 

Compare  these  adjectives: — 

High,  small,  great,  grateful,  unmindful,  cheer- 
ful, attractive,  lofty,  generous,  extravagant,  pen- 
urious. 

exercises.  , 

Model.  The  Swiss  hunters  of  this  mountain  region  ar* 
the  most  enduring  of  all.  Swiss  is  a  proper  adjective 
and  modifies  hunters,  by  Rule  VI.  This  is  a  definitive 
adjective,  demonstrative  kind,  and  modifies  region..  Moun- 
tain is  a  noun  used  as  descriptive  adjective  and  modifies 
region.  Most  enduring  is  verbal  adjective,  comparative 
degr.ee,  and  modifies  hunters. 

This  site  commands  an  extensive  view  of  both 
sides  of  the  river.  Every  leaf  and  every  twig  teems 
with  life.  Homer  was  the  greater  genius ;  Virgil, 
the  better  artist.  Wisdom  is  better  than  rubies 
(are.)  The  best  and  wisest  men  sometimes  err. 
A  long,  cold  ride  brought  us  to  a  most  comforta- 
ble inn. 


ARTICLES.  75 

CHAPTER  XV. 

ARTICLES. 

180.  A  or  an,  and  the  are  called  Articles. 
They  are  of  the  same  origin  as  the  definitive 

adjectives  one  and    that   and    modify  nouns  like 
them.  ^ 

They  cannot  like  that  form  the  subject  ofra  proposition, 
nor  like  adjectives  form  its  predicate.  Hence  they  musil 
be  classed  by  themselves. 

The  word  article  means  a  joint. 

181.  The  term  "is  of  Greek  origin  and  refers  to  the  con- 
nection of  clauses  by  means  of  the  relation  between  the 
article  and  relative  :  as,  "  The  man,  who  is  good,  is  happy," 
or  more  closely  the  man  that. 

1.  The  same  is  the  Saxon  construction, u Se  maim  se  tht ." 
"  The  man  the  who,  (he  who,)  or  the  that,"  "  the  man  that." 

2.  This  relation  still  remains,  expressed  or  understood  ; 
as,  T  he  man — of  whom  we  have  spoken.  The  boy — that 
you  saw. 

3.  Certain  words  which  are  definite  in  themselves,  do  B01 
require  this  reference;  as,  The  President.  '  The.  horse, 
when  the  species  is  meant,  &c. 

182.  J.  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  arti- 
cle, since'  it  points  out  no  particular  person  or 
thing. 

It  is  from  the  Saxon  an,  Scotch  anc,  one. 

183.  An  is  used  before  vowel  sounds,  but  drops 
the  n  before  consonant  sounds;  as,  An  apple,  aa 
inkstand,  an  hour,  a  horse,  a  man. 

184.  The  is  from  the  same  root  as  that* 

*It  is  thus  declined  in  Saxon: 


Mas* 

inline. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

PI 

wal  in  all  ge>  lers. 

Norn. 

,  So, 

peo, 

ihaet, 

Jffom.,  Tli  a. 

0{  »., 

Thaes, 

thaere, 

thaes. 

Oen.j  Thara. 

J)aL, 

Th  am, 

thaere, 

tli  am. 

fiat.,  Tliam. 

Ace, 

Thonc, 

tha, 

thaet. 

Aec.t  Tha. 

There  was  also  a  form   the  which  was  indeclinable,  from 
which  ours  has,  perhaps,  been  imitated,  not  derived. 


76  ETYxMOLOGY. 

The   is  called   the  definite  article,    since  it* 
points  out  some  particular  object;  as,  "He   has 
gone  to  the  store,"  that  is,  the  store  that  is  well 
known  or  has  been  mentioned. 

185.  A  or  an  can  stand  only  with  singular  nouns, 
the  with  both  singular  and  plural. 

186.  The  noun  without  an  article  is  taken  in  its 
widest  sense*  as,  man  means  all  men,  the  rac*e  of 
men  ;  a  man  means  some  one  but  no  particular 
man ;  the  man  means  a  particular  man  that  has 
been  spoken  of  before. 

187.  The  difference  between  a  and  the  is  well  shown  in 
this  example  :  il  Two  men  went  up  in  the  temple  to  pray 
the  one  a  Pharisee  and  the  other  a  publican.  But  the 
Pharisee  stood,  &c.  And  the  publican  standing  afar  off," 
&c. 

Here  ua  Pharisee"  and  "a  publican"  are  individuals 
of  a  class,  but  "the  Pharisee"  and  u the  publican  "  are 
those  who  have  just  been  mentioned  and  are  now  definite 
individuals. 

Articles  midify  nouns  by  Rules  VII,  and  VIII. 

Rule  VII.  Ihe  indefinite  article  modifies  nouns  in 
fie  singular  number. 

Rule  VIII.  1  he  definite  article  modifies  nouns  in 
the  singular  or  plural  number. 

i 

EXERCISES    FOR     CORRECTION. 

A  inkstand.  A  hour.  An  hand.  An  hill.  A  ox. 
A  caps.  An  oxen.  An  oxen  came  down  the  hill 
drawing  an  cart.  An  horse  is  an  useful  animal.  A 
inkstand  was  on  an  book.  A  honest  man  sold  me 
a  ox.  A  old  coat  is  an  useless  garment.  She  has 
an  handsome  goat  and  an  eve. 


VERBS.  77 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

VERBS. 

188.  The  verb  is  a  word  that  by  itself  may 
form  the  predicate  of  a  proposition. 

It  declares  what  is  or  is  done. 
Its  principal   use  is  to  assert,  hence  it  may  be 
defined  thus : — 

The  verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  something. 

189.  The  verb  is  the  name  of  an  action,  while  the  noun 
is  the  name  of  a  substance. 

1.  With  the  name  of  an  action  it  unites  the  power  of 
assertion,  which  alone  makes  it  a  verh. 

2.  In  the  higher  forms  of  language,  to  which  ours  prima- 
rily belongs,  the  verb  consists  of  two  parts,  a  root  and  a 
termination.  This  termination  is  a  pronominal  root,  which 
points  out  the  person  in  regard  to  whom  assertion  is  made. 

♦  3.  Assertion  is  a  mental  act,  effected,  so  far  as  form  is 
concerned,  by  the  union  of  these  two  elements.* 

4.  In  English  it  is  a  purely  mental  act;  as  in  /  read, 
the  mind  refers  read  at  once  to  I. 

Our  terminations  are  nearly  all  lost. 

SECTION  I.     CLASSES  OF  VERBS. 

190.  In  respect  to  the  proposition,  verbs  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  Abstract  and  Concrete. 

191.  Abstract  verbs  do  not  of  themselves 
form  the  predicates  of  propositions,  but  serve  as 
copulas  to  connect  the  subject  and  predicate  ; 
as,  "The  apple  is  sweet."  "He  seems  well." 
"  He  appears  cold." 

• 

*Amami  [compare  amabam(i)  amcm(i)]  the  archaic  form  of 
the  Latin  amo,  consists  of  the  stem  ama,  expressing  the  gene- 
ral idea  lovvuj,  with  the  pronominal  ending  mi  of  or  from  me, 
and  is  equal  to  loving,  proceeding  from  me  or  I  love.  This  has 
been  shown  by  a  wide  induction  of  facts. 


78  ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  Is,  when  asserting  being,  may  form  the  predicate;  as, 
"  God  is."  "  I  am."  Otherwise  it  is  the  most  abstract  of 
all  verbs,  and  hence  is  used  in  most  languages  to  express 
the  copula. 

2.  Abstract  verbs,  like  pronouns,  express  the  form 
and  relations,  but  not  the  substance. 

192.  Concrete  verbs  are  those  which  can 
form  the  predicate. 

They  combine  both  substance  and  form,  as  the  concrete 
noun  combines  substance  and  qualities. 

193.  In  respect  to  modification,  verbs  are  divi- 
ded into  two  classes,  complete  and  incom- 
plete, or  Intransitive    and    Transitive* 

194.  Complete  verbs  are  those  that  do  not 
require  the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  the 
sense;  as,  "John  runs."  "  The  rain  falls," 

195.  Incomplete  verbs  are  those  that  require 
the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  the  sense ; 
as,  "He  reads  a  paper,  book,  or  letter." 

196.  Transitive  means  passing  over ;  i  n  t  r  a  n  -, 
s  i  t  i  v  e,  not  passing  over. 

197.  The  incomplete  verbs  are  called  transitive 
'because,  physically  speaking,  their  action  passes 
over  from  the  subject  to  the  object.* 

198.  The  transitive  or  incomplete  verbs 
are  those  that  recfUire  the  addition  of  an  object  to 
complete  the  sense. 

• 

*This  is  true  in  regard  to  the  action,  as  in  "John  strikes 
William;"  but  language  is  the  expression  of  thought,  and 
Grammar  has  reference  to  the  means  used  in  expressing 
thought  and  not  to  actions. 

In  the  proposition  "John  strikes  William,"  it  is  strikes  %htft 
is  modified  by  William  and  not  William  by  strikes,  hence  in 
Grammar  the  terms  transitive  and  intransitive  do  not  express  the 
exact  state  of  the  case.  They  will  be  used  because  custom 
lias  fixed  them  in  our  books. 


THE    VOICES.  79 

199.  The  Intransitive  or  complete  verbs 
are  those  that  "do  not  require  the  addition  of  an 
object  to  complete  the  sense.. 

200.  Transitive  verbs  are  called  objective,  since  their 
action  terminates  in  an  object :  intransitivcs  are  termed 
subjective,  since  their  action  terminates  in  the  subject. 

201.  A  few  intransitive  verbs  require  a  modification  to 
complete  the  sense  ;  as,  lie  behaves  well  or  ill  or  lie  behaves 
himself.  In  the  last  case  the  action  still  ends  in  the  sub- 
ject, and  it  belongs  to  the  subjective  or  intransitive  verbs. 
They  are  called  reflexive  verbs. 

They  are  such  as  behaves,  bestir,  bethink,  boast,  delight, 
exqrcise,  foresee,  fret,  repent,  and  vaunt. 

1.  Others  are  both  reflexive  and  transitive;  as  I  exam- 
ine myself]  I  examine  him.  They  are  such  as,  examine, 
honor,  purify,  hill,  praise,  <t >c. 

2.  A  few  intransitives  by  a  change  of  form  become  tran- 
sitive ;  as,  "The  tree  falls."  "He  fells  the  tree,"  that  is, 
causes  it  to  fall.  "It  lies  there."  "He  lays  it  there," 
that  is,  causes  it  to  lie.  They  are  called  causative 
v  e  rbs. 

3.  Others  do  not  change  their  form;  as,  "The  ship  sinks." 
"  The  pirate  sinks  the  ship."  "  Fire  burns  wood."  "  The 
wood  burns."  "  The  man  burns  wood,"  that  is,  causes  it  to 
burn. 

SECTION  II.     THE  VOICES, 

202.  Transitive  verbs  have  two  forms,  called  the 
active  and  passive  voices. 

203.  In  the  active  voice  the  subject  is  repre- 
sented as  acting  upon  some  object;  as,  "John 
strikes  William." 

204.  In  the  passive  voice  the  subject  is  rep- 
resented as  being  acted  upon;  as,  "William  is 
struck  by  John."  The  object  of  the  active  voice 
becomes  the  subject  of  the  passive. 

1.  The  passive  is  a  convenient  form  of  expres- 
sion, when  we  wish  to  state  what  has  been  done 


SO  •  ETYMOLOGY. 

without  naming  the  actor;  as,   "Jphn  has  been 
struck." 

2.  Intransitive  verbs  do  not  admit  the  passive 
voice  since  they  have  no  object. 

8.  There  are  a  few  forms  like  "  He  is  gone,"  "  He  ia 
come,"  which  appear  like  a  passive  voice  of  intransitive 
verbs. 

They  seem  to  ha?e  arisen  in  this  way.  About  the  be- 
ginning of  the  9fch  century,  the  German  began  to  form 
its  perfect  tense  of  transitive  verbs  by  means  of  a  partici- 
ple and  the  verb  have  ;  and  of  intransitive  verbs,  by  means 
of  the  participle  and  the  verb  be. 

4.  In  French  a  somewhat  similar  usage  prevails,  deriv- 
ed, probably,  from  a  German  origin.  These  forms  have 
thus  been  transmitted  to  us,  not  as  passives,  but  as  pe- 
culiar active  forms  of  the  perfect  tense,  equivalent  to  "He 
has  gone,"  "He  has  come,"  which  should  now  be  used 
in  their  stead. 

5.  In  Saxon,  there  is  no  passive  voice,  but  the  participle 
agrees  with  the  subject  like  an  adjective.  Sometimes 
also  with  the  object. 

6.  The  terms  active  and  passive  are  borrowed  from 
those  languages  that  have  terminations  to  express  these 
relations;  as  in  Latin  rego  I  rule,  rtgor  I  am  ruled. 

7.  In  that  sense  we  have  no  passive.  Its  sense  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  compound  forms  1  am  learned.  Ihave  been 
loved.  Learned  and  loved  might  be  parsed  a*s  participles 
referring  to  the  subject  and  forming  the  predicates  of  the 
sentences. 

SECTION  III.     THE  MODES. 

205,  Assertion  may  be  made  in    various  ways : 

1.  When  I  say,  "John  reads,"  "  I  am,"  I  assert 
something  positively,  as  actual. 

2.  When  I  say,  "I  may  go,"  "I  can  learn," 
"he  could  run,"  I  assert  something  as  possible. 

3.  When  I  say  "If  it  rains  ;"  "  if  he  study,"  I 
assert  something  as  a  condition. 


THE    MODES.  81 

4.' When  I  say  "Go";  "come  here,"  I  assert 
something  as  necessary,  in  the  form  of  a  command. 

206.  These  four  forms  of  assertion,  as  actual, 
possible,  conditional,  and  necessary,  are  called 
M  o  d  e*8 .     The  word  mode  means  manner. 

They  distinguish  the  manner  of  the  action  or 
state  asserted. 

207.  Tli ere  are  four  Modes,  Indicative,  Potential, 
Subjunctive,  and  Imperative .* 

1.  The  Indicative  is  used  to  assert  positively. 

2.  The  Potential  asserts  power,  ability,  or 
necessity. 

3.  The  S  u  h  j  u  n  c  t  i  v  e  expresses  or  implies  a 
condition;  as,  "  If  he  study  he  will  learn." 


*1.  The  determination  of  the  number  of  modes  is  one  of 
the  most  difficult  points  in  Grammar. 

They  must  be  limited  to  the  forms  that  assert,  thus  exclu- 
ding the  infinitives  and  participles^  which  are  properly  verbal 
nouns  and  adjective?. 

2.  The  Anglo  Saxon  had  three  modes;  the  Indicative, 
Subjunctive,  and  Imperative. 

It  had  also  the  Infinitive,  as  lu/ian,  to  love;  the  Supine,  as 
To  lufigenne  to  love;  the  Indefinite  Participle,  as  lujtgende 
loving  ;    and  the  Perfect  Participle,  ktfodloved. 

3.  The  indicative  and  subjunctive  modes  wore  found  m  two 
tenses  only,  the  Indefinite  and  the  Perfect 

4.  Of  these  we  have  the  Indicative;  the  Subjunctive  indefinite, 
rarely  in  conditional  sentences;  the  Imperative;  the  Infinitive, 
love,  in  /  may  lore,  ccc;  the  Supine,  to  love;  and  the  Participles. 

5.  Besides  these  we  have  compound  forms  of  two  classes. 
Fii-iit,  those  formed  of  the  Perfect  Participle  of  any  verb  and 
the  verb  have.  Second,  those  compounded  of  shall,  will,  may, 
can.  mast,  and  the  simple  infinitives. 

Of  the  last,  those  with  shall  and  will  are  catted  future  Indie- 
aiiye tenses.  The  rest  are  by  some  classed  with  the  Indicative; 
by  others  they  are  made  to  form  the  Potential  mode. 

0.  Historically,  the  forms  of  the  second  class  are  indicative 
tenses  followed  by  the  simple  infinitive. 

7.  These  verbs  shall,  wilt,&c,  now  differ  from  others,  in  that 
they  cannot  of  themselves  make  an  assertion,  but  require  an 


82  ETYMOLOGY* 

4.  The  Imperative  mode  expresses  a  com- 
mand, exhortation,  or  entreaty. 

SECTION  IV.     THE  PARTICIPIALS. 

• 

208.  There  are  certain  forms  attached  to  nearly 
all  verbs  which  do  not  assert,  and  are  therefore 
not  modes. 

1.  They  are  Infinitives,  Participles, 
and  Verbal   Noun, 

2.  These  are  called  Participials. 

8.   Participle  and  participial  mean  partaking  of. 

209.  The  infinitives  and  verbal  nou  n 
partake  of  the  nature  of  the  verb  and  noun;  the 
parti  ci  pie.  a  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  verb 
and  adjective. 

210.  The  I  n  f  i  n  i  t  i  v  e  is  found  in  two  forms  : 
1.  First,  the  simple  infinitive  derived  from 


infinitive  modifier.  Except  will  which  is  sometimes  used  in  a 
complete  assertion;  as,  "He  willed  it  to  be  so." 

We  must  either  reject  all  the  compound  tenses,  the  futures 
included,  and  analyze  them  into  their  separate  parts,  or  adopt 
them  as  compound  forms.  Either  may  be  done.  The  latter 
is  the  usual  method. 

Shall  we  class  them  all  as  indicative  forms,  or  divide  them 
into  indicative  and  potential? 

9.  "  I  shall  go,"  "  you  sball  go,"  assert  positively  and  are 
Indicative  forms.  "  I  may  go,"  "We  might  go,"  assert  possi- 
bility and  may  be  conveniently  called  Pot  en  tial  forms. 

10.  The  Subjunctive  was  marked-  by  not  varying  in  -the 
pcsons. 

11.  It  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the 
verb  to  he,  and  the  present  tense  of  other  verbs. 

i/puts  no  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mode,  but  merely  intro- 
duces a  conditional  proposition. 

12.  The  subjunctive  is  found  only  in  the  conditional  prop- 
ositions;  but  even  there  the  indicative  has  nearly  taken  its 
place.  In  if  he  learn,  learn  is  in  the  subjunctive.  In  if  he  learnt, 
learns  is  in  the  indicative 


PARTlCiriALS.  83 

the  regular  Saxon  infinitive.  It  is  used  after  may, 
can,  must,  ivill,  shall,  let,  make,  have,  need,  do,  dare, 
bid,  help,  see,  hear,  feel. 

g.  Second,  the  infinitive  with  to  or  the  p  r  e  p  o- 
sitional  infinitive. 

3.  As  shown  above,  (207  note,)  the  Saxon  infinitive  of 
love  was  lufian,  while  the  supine  was  to  lujiycnnc  or  to  lu- 
fienne.  From  this  conies  our  English  to  love.  This  form 
has  nearly  taken  the  place  of  the  true  infinitive. 

4.  Its  proper  name  is  the  Supine. 

211.  The  Verbal  noun  ended  in  ung,  after- 
wards in  tug.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  parti- 
ciple in  ing  by  its  ability  to  form  the  subject  of  a 
proposition,  which  the  participle  cannot  do ;  as, 
"  Writing  is  fatiguing." 

1.  It  is  a  participial,  because  it  receives  the  modifica- 
tions of  the  verb ;  as,  "  Writing  letters  is  a  pleasant 
employment." 

2.  The  verbal  noun  is  closely  connected  in  mean- 
ing- with  the  infinitive,  and  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
Gothic  infinitive  ;  as,  "  I  love  to  play."  "  I  love  play- 
ing."    "  To  play  is  pleasant,"  or  "playing  is  pleasant." 

212.. The  Par  ticip  1  e  like  the  adjective,   ex 
presses  both  the  predicate  and  the  attribute;  as 
"  The  sun  is  rising."     "The  rising  sun."     "The 
man  is  learned."     "  The  learned  man." 

1.  Like  a  verb  it  denotes  the  completion  or  in- 
complefcion  of  an  action  ;  has  the  distinction  of 
voice,  and  receives  the  same  modifiers  that  it  does. 

2.  There  are  three  participles,  the  Imperfect 
loving,  the  Perfect  loved,  and  the  Compound  having 
loved. 

213.  The  Imperfect  represents  an  action  or 
state  as  continuing,  the  Perfect,  as  finished. 


84  •  ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  The  Imperfect  participle  ends  in  ing. 

In  Saxon  it  ended  in  aide.  In  Old  English  we  have 
ancle  and  and;  as,  "tie  p  re  chyde  say  andc,' '  he 
preached  saying.   "  Hors,  or  bund  or  othir  thing." 

"  That  was  p  1  e  a  s  a  n  d  to  their  liking." — Bruce,  13£7. 

Here  pica  sand  is  the  participle  and  lijcing  the  verbal 
noun. 

There  are  such  forms  as  criande,  crying;  lepande, 
leaping ;  1  i v a n d ,  living  in  Chancer  :  and  glitterand, 
glittering  in  Spenser.  Also  play  and  in  Sir  Richard 
Maitland  who  died  in  1589. 

2.  In  some  way  not  exactly  known,  the  ending  of  the 
participle  has  been  lost,  and  the  ending  of  "the  verbal  noun 
has  been  taken  for  both:  The  ending  of  the  participle,  it 
is  said,  still  survives  in  the  English  dialects,  in  such  forms 
as  doand,  strikand  for  doing,  striking. 

8.  The  Perfect  participle   of  most   verbs  ends 

in  ed. 

SECTION  Y.     THE  TENSES. 

214. 'There  are  three  divisions  of  time,  present, 
past,  and  future. 

215.  In  each  of  these  an  action  may  be  repre- 
sented as  indefinite,  continuing, -or  com- 
pleted. 

"He  writes,"  that  is,  "he  is  accustomed  to  do 
it,"  is  indefinite;  "  he  is  writing  "  is  coutinous  or 
progressive;  "he  has  written  "  is  completed. 

216.  The  forms  of  the  verb  made  use  of  to  ex- 
press these  relations  are  called  tenses. 

The  word  tense  means  time. 

The  tense  forms  in  English  denotes  not  only  the  rela- 
tions of  time,  but  also  the  completion  or  incompletion  of 
the  action  or  state  asserted. 

217;  There  are  six  tenses,  the  Present, 
Past,  Future,  Present  Perfect,  Past 
Perfect  and  Future  Perfect. 


THE   TENSES.  85 

The  Present,  Past,  and  Future  express  indefinite 
action  ;  the  others  express  completed  action. 

Progressive  action  is  expressed  by  joining  the 
Imperfect  participle  to  the  forms  of  the  verb  be 
or  am. 

218.  The  Saxon,  in  common  with  the  other  German 
-anguages  had  but  two  tenses,  the  Indefinite  and  the 
Perfect  or  preterit. 

The  Indefinite  denoted  present  or  future  time ;  the  Per- 
fect, an/  past  time  according  to  the  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence. 

219.  Our  tenses  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
simple  and  compound. 

The  simple  tenses  are  the  Present  and  Past, 
which  are  like  the  Saxon  indefinite. 

The  compound  tenses  are  of  two  kinds,  those 
formed  with  hare,  and  those  formed  with  shall  and 
will. 

220.  The  first  are  the  Present  and  Past  Perfects  ; 
as,  "I  have  learned,"  "I  had  learned." 

They  are  compounded  of  have  and  its  past  had, 
and  the  Perfect  participle  of  any  verb. 

221.  They  evidently  arose  in  this  way.  The  participle 
at  first  was  used  only  after  transitive  verbs  and  agreed 
with  the  object,  but  was  gradually  and  insensibly  applied 
to  all  'verbs,  and  its  connection  with  the  object  lo3fc 
sight  of.* 

222.  The  second  are  the  future  tenses,  which 
are  compounded  of  shall  and  will  and  the  tenses 

*For  example  we  have  in  Saxon,  "  Hine  haefde  he  gesetenne.'i 
"  Him  lwid  he  set."     Clescicnnc  agrees  with  the  object  hine. 

As  if  we  should  say  in  English,  "I  have  a  letter  written," 
and  pass  from  that  to  "  I  have  written  a  letter." 

8 


86  ETYMOLOGY. 

of  1&e  infinitive;    as,  "I  shall  learn,"   "I  shall 
have  learned." 

Their  original  construction  is  that  of  infinitives  depend- 
ing upon  principal  verbs.  In  fact  they  might  still  be 
parsed  in  that  manner. 

223.  There  are  also  compound  forms,  composed 
of  the  auxiliary  do  and  its  past  tense  did,  which 
are  used  to  express  emphasis;  as,  "I  do  learn," 
"I  did  learn." 

TIIE    PRESENT   TENSE. 

224.  The  Present  Tense  denotes  present 
time. 

1.  The  simple  form  is  indefinite  and  asserts 
what  is  true  and  customary ;  as,  "  He  writes  well," 
that  is,  "He  is  accustomed  to  do  it."  "God  is." 
"Truth  is  eternal." 

It  also  expresses  a  progressive  action  ;  as,  "He 
breathes  slowly." 

2.  The  progressive  form  asserts  what  is  now 
going  on;  as,  "He  is  writing,"  "I  am  studying 
my  lesson." 

3.  I  do  write  is  the  emphatic  form. 

4.  The  Present  is  used  in  reference  to  past  actions  to 
give  animation  to  discourse;  as, ."  He  enters  the  territory 
of  the  peaceful  inhabitants}  he  fights,  he  conquers,3'  &c. 

5.  It  is  used  in  regard  to  persons  long  since  dead  whose 
works  still  exist;  as,  "Cicero  writes  elegantly." 

6.  With  certain  adverbs  of  time  it  refers  to  future 
events;  as,  "  Vthen  he  arrives,  he  will  hear  the  news." 
'He  goes  to-morrow." 

m  7.  The  simple  form  might  be  called  the  Indefinite 
tense,  since  it  may  be  used  in  reference'  to  any  time. 
The  progressive  forms  alone  mark  time  actually  passing. 
It  is  on  account  of  its  indefinite  meaning  that  it  may  be 
used  in  the  4th,  5th,  and  Gth  cases. 


THE  PAST  TENSE.  87 

THE  PAST  TENSE. 

225.  The   Past   Tense   denotes  past  time. 

1.  The  simple  form  represents  an  action  merely 
as  past;  as,  "I  wrote."  "He  studied." 

2.  The  progressive  form  represents  an  action  as 
going  on,  at  some  past  time  mentioned;  as,  "  Ho 
was  writing,  when  we  came." 

This  is  -the  Imperfect  tense  of  other  languages.  The 
simple  form  corresponds  to  the  Greek  aorist. 

8.  I  did  write  is  the  emphatic  form. 

4.  Most  of  the  simple  forms  assert  an  action  simply  as 
past;  while  others  in  themselves  indicate  a  progressive 
action;  as,  "The  village  master  taught  his  little  school," 
that  is,  "was  teaching. '' 

FORMATION    OF   THE    PAST   TENSE. 

226.  The  Past  tense  is  formed  in  two  ways,  by 
adding  a  syllable,  a3  in  learn,  learned;  and  by 
changing  the  vowel  of  the  present,  as  in  sing,  sang. 

1.  The  second,  by  recent  scholars,  is  called*  the  strong 
form,  and  the  first  is  called  the  weak. 

2.  The  Past  of  weak  verbs  is  formed  by  adding  d}  t,  or 
cd  to  the  present ;  as  leam-ed,  love-d;  bend,  b<u(d)t;  seek, 
souf/h-t;  buy,  bougJi-t.* 

In  reality  as  shown  in  the  note  it  is  a  Compound  tense, 
whose* "composition"  is  no  longer  evident. 

3.  The  Present  and  Past  are  the  only  simple  tenses,  and 
strictly  speaking,  the  only  tenses  of  the  English  verb. 
The  other  relations  of  time  are  expressed  by  means  of 
helping  words  or  auxiliaries. 

-In  Saxon  the  weak  verb  added  <lc :  as,  lufian  to  love,  Indet*. 
Pres.  lujige  I  lore,  Perf.  or  Past  lufode  I  loved.  Bacrnan  to 
burn ;  Ic  baevne  I  burn  ;  1c  baenule,  I  burned. 

Bopp  has  shown  that  this  and  corresponding  syllables  in 
other  German  languages,  is  derived  from  the  verb  do,  German 
thun,  so  that  loved  is  equal  to  I  love  did. 


88  ETYMOLOGY. 


THE  COMPOUND  TENSES. 


THE  FUTURE. 

227.  The  Futivre  Tease  denotes  future  time. 

1.  The  simple  form  is  indefinite  and  asserts 
merely  that  an  action  will  take  place  hereafter ; 
as,  "I  shall  write." 

2.  It  is  composed  of  shall  and  will  and  the  simple 
infinitive  of  any  verb.  • 

3.  The  progressive  form  asserts  that  an  action 
will  he  going  on  at  some  future  time  ;  as,  "  I  shall 
he  writing  when  he  arrives." 

4.  Future  time  is  expressed  in  English  in  various  ways. 
1st.  By  the  present;  as,  '•  I  go  to-morrow;"   2d.  by  means 

■  11)  3d.    by   means  of   will;    4th.    by    periphrastic 
forms;  as,  "  I  am  going"  to  study."   "I  am  about  to  write." 

228.  Shall,  Saxon  sceal  moans  to  owe,  to  bejneeessUrt/\ 
"  Ic  sceal  f ram  the  Leon  gefullod"  "I  ought  to  be  baptized 
by  thee."  Beon  is  the  infinitive  to  he,  and  gefullod  the 
perfect  participle. 

"  The  faith  I  shall  (towe)  to  God. "— Chaucer. 

1.  There  are  instances  in  Saxon  and  Maeso-Gothie 
where  the  forms  with  shall  had  nearly  the  same  meaning 
as  now. 

2.  Shall  is  the  only  future  auxiliary  in  old  English. 

8.  I  shall  go  means  I  ought  to  go,  and,  therefore,  by 
implication,  it  will  be  done. 

4.  Will  expresses  the  determination  or  will  of  the  sub- 
ject, and,  through  the  expectation  that  it  will  be  carried 
out,  conveys  a  future  meaning. 

1  will  go  means  I  am  determined  to  go,  and,  therefore, 
it  will  be  done. 

5.  Will  has  now  taken  the  place  of  shall  in  the  second 
and  third  persons  of  the  predictive  or  ordinary  future. 

220.  There  arc  two  forms  of  the  Future,  the 
predictive  and  the  promissive. 

1.  Shall  in  the  first  person  and  will  in  the 'second 
and  third  simply  foretell  and  form  the  predictive. 


THE    PERFECT   TENSES.  89 

2.  Will  in  the  first  person,  and  shall  in  the  sec- 
ond and  third  refer  to  the  will  of  the  speaker,  and 
form  the  promissive  future. 

COMPOUND   TENSES   WTTH*HAVE, 

230.  The  compound  tenses  with  have  in  their 
simple  form  denote  an  action  completed  at  a  cer- 
tain time  ;  as  "I  have  written  a  letter  to-day," 
that  is,  it  is  now  finished. 

"I  had  written  a  letter  before  you  came."  "I 
shall  have  written  a  letter  by  the  time  you  arrive." 

1.  In  the  progressive  form  they  denote  an  action 
which  had  been  going  on,  but  which  was  finished 
at  a  certain  time;  as,  "He  had  been  reading, 
before  you  came." 

2.  They  arc  called  perfect  tenses  since  their  ac- 
tion is  completed  at  the  time  mentioned,  or  implied. 

They  are  the  Present  Perfect,  the  Past 
Perfect,  and  the  Future  P  e  r f e  c  t  tenses. 

THE    PRESENT    PERFECT. 

231.  The  Present  Perfect  denotes,  first,  a 
completed  action;  second,  an  action  completed  in 
time  connected  with  the  present. 

1.  The  first  is  the  usual  meaning;  as,  "A  friend  of 
mine  whom  1  have  formerly  mentioned." — Addison. 
"And  where  the  Atlantic  rolls,  wide  continents  have 
bloomed." — 1>yron.  "Privileges  have  been  granted  to 
legislators  in  all  ages." — Mansfield.  "I  have  read  it 
frequently."     "  I  have  been  young." 

Tn  this  it  corresponds  to  the  indefinite  present. 

2.  When  time  is  referred  to  it  must  be  connected  with 
the  present,  otherwise  it  is  completely  indefinite. 

8.  Hence  it  cannot  be  used  in  reference  to  any  particu- 
lar past  time.     I  cannot  say,  "I  have  written  yesterday, " 


90  ETYMOLOGY. 

but   UI   wrote  yesterday,"  though  I  may  say,  "  I  have 
written ,"  indefinitely,  in  reference  to  any  past  time. 

4.  When  any  past  action  is  connected  with  the  present 
by  the  existence  of  the  author  or  the  work,  this  tense  is 
used;  as,  "Cicero  has  written  orations;"  but  we  say, 
•Cicero  wrote  poc«is,"  since  they  do  not  exist. 

THE    PAST    PERFECT. 

232.  The  Past  Perfect  Tense  denotes  an 
action  finished  before  some  past  time  mentioned ; 
as,  "I  had  written  the  letter,  before  lie  came." 

In  its  form  it  is  the  past  tense  of  have  together  with  the 
participle. 

THE    FUTURE    PERFECT. 

233.  The  Future  Perfect  Tense  denotes  an 

action  or  state  that  will  be  completed  before  some 

other  action  mentioned;  as,  "I  shall  have  written 

my  letter,  before  the  mail  arrives." 

In  its  form  it  cdhsists  of  the  auxiliaries  shall  and  wiU 
mid  the  perfect  infinitive. 

234.  A  Synopsis  is  given  by  naming  the  first 
person  singular  in  each  tense. 

SYNOPSIS   OF   LEARN. 

Simple  Form.  Progressive  Form. 

Present,  I  learn,  I  am  learning. 

Past,  I  learned,  I  was  learning. 

Future,  I  shall  or  will  learn,  I  shall  or  will  be  learning. 

Present  Perfect,  I  have  learned  I  have  been  learning. 

Past  Perfect,  I  had  learned,  I  had  been  learning. 
Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have 

learned,  m  I  shall  have  been  learning, 

Give  a  synopsis  of  love,  study,  play,  desire. 
SECTION  IV.     TENSES  OF  THE  POTENTIAL. 

235.  The  Potential  mode  has  four  forms,  an- 
swering to  the  tenses  of  present  and  past  time  ; 


TENSES   OF   THE   POTENTIAL.  91 

"  I  may  g&"  "  I  might  go,"  I  may  have  gone."  "I 
might  have  gone." 

They  arc,  in  their  origin,  indicative  tense3  of 
the  verbs,  may,  can,  must,  (shall)  should,  and  (will) 
would,  followed  by  the  simple  infinitives. 

236.  A  brief  statement  of  the  force  of  these 
verbs  will  help  us  to  understand  these  forms. 

1.  May  from  Saxon  magan;  Prcs.  Ic  maeg,  I 
may;  Past  Jo  mihte,  I  might;  signifies to  he  able. 

1  may  go  means  "I  am  able  to  go  if  nothing 
prevents/' 

You  may  go  expresses  permission,  rarely  doubt. 

He  may  go  expresses  first,  possibility ;  secondly, 
permission . 

2.  Can  from  cunnan ;  Pres.  Ic  can,  lean;  Past 
1c  cudhe,  I  could,  signifies  to  hen,  to  know  how,  to  be 
able. 

1  can  go  means  I  am  able  to  go. 

3.  Mast,  Saxon  mot,  Old  Eng.  mote,  signifies 
ought,  it  is  necessary. 

4.  Might,  could,  would,  and  should  are  the  past 
tenses  of  may,  can,  will,  and  shall. 

5.  The  forms  with  may,  can,  and  must  usually 
assert  power,  permission,  n  e  c  e  s  s  i  t  y,  or 
possibility;  as,  "  lie  can  go."  "  He  may 
go."     "  He  must  go." 

6.  Generally,  they  imply  a  supposition  or  con- 
dition;  as,  "  You  can  learn,  if  you  will  try."  "I 
may  go,  if  it  does  not  rain."     * 

7.  They  also  denote  the  purpose  or  object  of  a 
preceding  proposition;  as,  "He  studies,  that  he 
may  learn."  "He  commands,  that  you  must 
study." 


92    .  ETYMOLOGY. 

8.  The  forms  with  might,  could,  would,  and  should 
denote  an  hypothesis,  which  cannot  be  true  or 
which  is  known  not  to  be  real;  as,  u  He  might 
study,  if  he  would,"  but  he  does  not.  "  He  would 
come  to  see  you,  it  he  was  at  home,"  but  he  is  not. 

9.  After  past  tenses  they  denote  the  purpose, 
or  object ;  as,  "  He  studies,  that  he  might  learn." 
"  He  wished,  that  he  could  go." 

10.  They  are  also  used  in  their  primary  meaning ;  as, 
"  I  should  be  glad  to  see  you."  "He  would  have  it 
done." 

11.  They  are  generally  used  after  verbs  in  the  past 
tense,  but  may  also  follow  the  indefinite  present;  as,  "  I 
think  you  would  be  pleased."  "  I  wish  I  could  approve 
his  conduct."     "  He  says,  you  should  not  conduct  so." 

12.  In  their  primary  sense  the  Potential  forms  are  in- 
dicative in  meaning;  in  their  secondary  and  more  com- 
mon sense,  they  resemble  the  subjunctive  of  other  lan- 
guages. 

13.  The  tenses  of  the  Potential  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes,  those  that  express  a  condition,  and  those  that 
express  an  hypothesis. 

14.  The  conditional  are  the  Present,  and  Present  Per- 
fect ;  the  hypothetical  are  the  Past,  and  Past  Perfect. 

237.  In  respect  to  time  these  tenses  are  indefin- 
ite, especially  in  the  Present  and  Past  forms. 

1.  The  Present  implies  present  or  future  time, 
according  to  the  modifying  words  ;  as,  "  I  can  go 
now."     "I  may  go  to-morrow." 

2.  The  Past  implies  *p  resent,  past,  or  future 
time  ;  as,  Present,  "  I  would  go  now  if  it  were  pos- 
sible." Past,  "I  could  not  go  last  year."  "He 
said  last  week  I  might  go  yesterday."  iuture, 
"You  should  by  all  means  return  next  week." 

3.  The  Present  Perfect  implies  that  an  action 
may  have  taken  place  in  past  time  ;  as,  "James 
may  have  returned." 


TEXSES    OF    THE    SUBJUNCTIVE.  93 

4.  The  Past  Perfect  implies  that  it  was  possible 
that  an  action  might  have  taken  place  in  past 
time;  as,  "He  might  have  studied."  "lie  could 
have  returned." 

■ 

238.  SYNOPSIS  OF  LEARN  IN  THE  POTENLIAL. 

Present,  I  may,  can,  or  must  learn,  or  be  learning. 

Past,  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  learn,  or  be  learn- 
ing. 

Pres.  Per/.,  I  may,  can,  or  muf  t  have  learned,  or  been 
learning. 

Past  Per/.,  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  learn- 
ed, or  been  learning. 

SECTION  VI.     TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

239.  The  Subjunctive  anciently  had  two  tenses, 
as  shown  in  section  207,  note.  They  were  differ- 
ent in  form  from  the  indicative  and  did  not  change 
in  the  different  persons. 

1.  It  has  nearly  disappeared  from  the  language. 

2.  It  is  found  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  of 
to  be  and  the  present  tense  of  other  verbs. 

3.  It  is  used  only  in  conditional  sentences  after 
if,  though,  unless,  except,  whether,  and  lest. 

4.  In  the  future  conditional  the  distinction  be- 
tween will  and  shall  is  not  observed,  but  shall  is 
used  through  all  the  persons. 

5.  If  he  learn,  if  thou  learn  are  subjunctive  only 
in  that  the}'  do  not  vary  in  the  present. 

6.  "  If  he  learn  "  means  "  if  he  shall  learn,"  and 
has  been  called  the  Future  c  o  n  ting  e  n  t 
tense. 

7.  The  indieativc  form  "if  he  learns"  is  now 
almost  universally  used  in  its  place. 


94  m      ETYMOLOGY. 

8.  "  If  I  be,  if  thou  be,  if  lie  be,"  may  be,  and  probably 
is,  the  Saxon  subjunctive  of  the  verb  to  be.* 

9.  The  indicative  forms  of  to  be,  "  I  be,  thou  beest,  he 
be"  are  said  to  have  had  in  Saxon  a  future  meaning. 

10.  "  If  I  were,"  is  a  true  subjunctive  in  distinc 
tion  from  "If  I  was." 

11.  Like  all  past  tenses  in  conditional  sentences, 
it  is  hypothetical;  as,  "If  he  were  studious  he 
would  improve,"  hut  he  is  not.  It  retains  its  hy- 
pothetical meaning  when  used  without  if.  In  this 
case  it  precedes  its  subject;  as,  "Were  I,"  "Were 
you,"  "Were  he." 

The  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  are  a  Present,  or 
Contingent  Future  and  a  Hypothetical  Past. 

Contingent  Future,  If  I  be.  If  I  learn,  if  thou  learn,  if 
he  learn. 

Hypothetical  Past.  If  I  were.  It  has  no  reference  to 
past  time. 

SECTION  VII.    TENSE  OF  THE  IMPERATIVE. 

210.  The  Imperative  has  but  one  tense,  the 
Present. 

1.  All  commands  are  made  in  present  time, 
though  they  are  executed  in  the  future. 

2.  It  expresses  a  command;  as,  " Love  thou;" 
an  exhortation,  "Come  ye  to  the  waters;"  an 
entreaty,  "Return  0  Lord;"  a  wish,  "0  king  live 
forever,"  "farewell,"  "good-bye;"  permission, 
"Go  in  peace." 

3.  The  verh  itself  is  found  only  in  the  second 
person.  The  other  persons  may  be  represented 
by  means  of  let,  and  by  ellipses;  as,  "Let  him 

*The  subjunctive  of  Saxon  com,  I  am, was:— S.  1.  sy;  2.  sy;  3.  sy. 
PI.  syn.  The  subjunctive  of  beon,  to  be  was:— Sing.  1,  beo  >  2, 
beo;  3,  beo.     PL  beon,  the  indicative  S.  1,  beo ;  2,  byst;  3,byth, 


TENSES   OF   THE    PARTICIPIALS.  05 

go."  "Thy  kingdom  come,"  that  is,  "Let  thy 
kingdom  come."  It  agrees  with  thou  or  you  ex- 
pressed or  understood. 

4.  The  indicative  mode  springs  from  the  reason  and 
expresses  a  thought.  The  imperative  springs  from 
the  will,  and  indulges  in  ellipses ;  as,  Come,  Run.  To 
arms.  Right.  Left,  dV. 

SECTION  VIII.    TENSES  OF  THE  PARTICIPIALS. 

THE    INFINITIVES. 

211.  The  Infinitive,  both  simple  and  supine  has 
two  forms  ;  Present,  and  P  e  r  f  e  c  t . 

1.  The  first  expresses  an  action  or  state  indefin- 
itely without  regard  to  time;  as,  "  lie  desires  to 
learn."  "  Eager  to  study."  "He  desired  to  write." 
"He  will  be  ready  to  go." 

2.  The  second  expresses  a  completed  action  or 
state  without  reference  to  time., 

3.  The  leading  verb  expresses  the  time,  while  the  infin- 
itive modifies  it%  cither  like  a  noun  or  a  clause.  "Eager  to 
study,"  means  "eager  that  he  may  study."  "  He  loves  to 
read,"  or  "  He  loves  reading."  "  He  reads  to  learn." 
"  He  reads  that  he  may  learn." 

« 

THE   PARTICIPLES. 

212.  Intransitive  verbs  have  three  Participles ; 
as,  running,  run,  having  run;  called,  the  imperfect, 
perfect,  and' compound. 

'Running  is  the  imperfect;  run,  the  perfect;  hav- 
run  run,  the  compound. 

243.  Transitive  verbs  have  six  participles,  three 
active,  and  three  passive;  as  active,  loving,  loved, 
having  loved i  passive,  being  laved,  loved,  having  ! 
loved. 


96  '  ETYMOLOGY.  ' 

244.  The  imperfect  participle  ends  in  big,  and 
denotes  an  action  or  state  continuing  in  the  time 
of  the  leading  verb;  as,  "He  was  reading."  "He 
entered  singing." 

245.  The  perfect  participle  implies  an  action  or 
state  completed. 

1.  In  weak  or  regular  verbs  it  ends  in  ed  from 
Saxon  od,  as  in  lufod  loved ;  in  strong  verbs  it 
generally  ends  in  en. 

2.  Many  verbs  in  Saxon,  in  the  past  tense,  changed  the 
•  vowel  of  the  singular,  in  the   plural ;  as,  1c  sang,  I  sung. 

We  sungon,  we  sung.  Whenever  that  occurred  the  parti- 
ciple was  formed  from  the  plural  form;  as,  findan  to  find. 
Past  Sing.  It  f and.  Plural,  We  fundon,  Perf.  Part. 
funden. 

3.  In  this  manner  the  double  forms  of  the  past  tense 
sang,  sung;  rang,  rung,  may  be  explained ;  one  is  derived 
from  the  singular  and  the  other  from  the  plural. 

4.  The  form  from  the  plural  is  the  most  common  in 
English,  probably  from  the  influence  of  the  participle. 

5.  The  compound  of  the  perfect  denotes  an  ac- 
tion or  state  finished  before  some  otlier ;  as,  "Hav- 
ing learned  my  lesson,  I  went  to  school." 

246.  Much  diversity  of  opinion  exists  0in  regard  to  the 
progressive  passive  participle,  whether  we  shall  say  "  the 
house  is  building/'  or  "  the  house  is  being  built." 

The  facts  seem  to  be  these.  Building  in  "  the  house  is 
building,"  is  not  a  participle,  but  a  verbal  noun  and  the 
full  expression  would  be,  "  The  house  is  a  building,"  or 
"  in  building."  This  form  of  expression  prevailed  from 
the  rise  of  the  English  language  until  the  beginning* of 
the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  preposition  was  dropped. 
It  means  "the  house  is  in  the  process  of  building." 

To  avoid  the  supposed  inconsistency  in  saying  "  The 
man  is  building  a  house,"  and  "The  house  is  building," 
the  expression,  "  The  house  is  being  built,"  has  been  re- 
cently introduced.  It  is  a  clumsy  expression  and  has  not 
received  tke  sanction  of  our  best  writers.     If  "Is  build- 


STRONG   AND    WEAK   VERBS.  9  7 

ing"  is  objected  to,  say  "  They  are  building  a  house,"  or 
use  some  similar  expression.  See  particularly  Marsh's 
Eng.  Lang.,  p.  651. 

SECTION  IX.     STRONG  AND  WEAK  VERBS. 

247.  The  principal  parts  of  the  verb  are  the 
Present,  and  Past  indicative,  and  the  Per- 
fect P  a  r  ti  c  i  p  1  e  ;  as,  sing,  sang,  sung  ;  , learn, 
learned,  learned. 

1.  From  these  parts  all  the  others  are  formed. 

2.  "There  are  two  methods  of  forming  these 
parts  and  consequently  two  classes  of  verbs  in  re- 
spect to  form. 

3.  They  are  commonly  called  the  Regular 
and   Irregular  verbs. 

4.  The  one  changes  the  vowel  to  form  the  past 
tense,  the  other  adds  a  syllable;  as,  sing,  sang ; 
learn,  learned. 

The  first  is  the  oldest  form,  and  prevails  through  all  the 
Germanic  languages.  The  process  is  now  obsolete,  while 
the  method  by  adding  a  syllable  is  now  the  vital  process. 

6.  Yerbs  that  change  the  vowel  are  called  strong, 
because  they  form  their  parts  within  themselves. 

7.  Verbs  hat  add  a  syllable  are  called  weal\ 
because  they  require  an  addition  from  without. 

They  add  d,  t,  or  ed,  to  form  their  principal 
parts. 

8.  The  Weak  or  Regular  verbs  are  those 
that  add  d,  t,  or  ed,  to  form  their  past  tense  and 
perfect  participle. 

9.  The  Strong  or  Irregular*  verbs  are 
those  that  do  not  add  d,  t,  or  ed,  but  change  the 
vowel. 

9 


98  ETYMOLOGY. 

One  class  is  just  as  regular  as  the  other,  hence  the 
terms  regular  and  irregular  are  objectionable. 

SECTION  X.  THE  NUMBERS  AND  PERSONS  OF 
THE   VERB. 

248.  The  numbers  and  persons  of  the  verb,  in 
its  complete  form  are  shown  by  its  endings. 

These  are,  as  has  been  said,  pronominal  roots. 

As  languages  grow  old  they  fall  away  or  are  forgotten, 
so  that  modern  languages  are  nearly  destitute  of  personal 
endings. 

249.  Verbs  agree  with  their  subjects  in  number 
and  person  and  consequently  have  two  numbers, 
singular  and  plural;  and  three  persons, 
first,  second,  and  third. 

1.  The  sign  of  the  first  person  m  is  found  in  a-m.  alone. 

2.  The  sign  of  the  second  is  st  or  est ;  of  the  tiiird  cth 
or  th,  es,  s.  # 

3.  The  plural  has  no  signs  of  person. 

4.  The  signs  of  person  are  indirectly  signs  of  number, 
since  they  are  found  only  in  the  singular. 

SECTION. XI.     THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

250.  The  Auxiliary  verbs  are  do,  be,  have,  will, 
shall,  may,  can,  must. 

1.  They  are  called  auxiliary,  because  by  their 
help  the  principal  verbs  are  conjugated. 

2.  Do,  be,  have,  and  will,  are  also  used  as  princi- 
pal verbs.  Do,  be,  and  have,  when  so  used,  are 
conjugated  in  full. 

3.  ~Wilk,  shall,  may,  can,  andwms/,  are  thus  con- 
jugated. 


CONJUGATION   OF   BE   OR   AM. 


99 


PLURAL. 

Istperson 

.Id  person. 

Zd  penon 

We 

You 

They 

will, 

will, 

will. 

wouldj 

would, 

would. 

slmll, 

shall, 

shall. 

should, 

should, 

should. 

may, 

may, 

may. 

might, 

might, 

might. 

can, 

can, 

can. 

could, 

could, 

could. 

must, 

must, 

must. 

SINGULAR. 

1st  Person.  2d person.Zd person. 

I  Thou        He 

Pfe*.9  Will,  wilt,         will: 

Past,  Would,  wouldest, would; 

Pres.,  Shall,  shalt,        shall; 

Past,  Should,  shouldest,should ; 

/\T.s\,May,  mayst,      may; 

Past,  Might,  mightest,might; 

Pros.,  Can,  canst,       can ; 

Past,  Could,  couldest,  could; 

P/-c?.,Must,  must,       must; 


251.  The  conjugation  of  the  verb  is  the  regu- 
lar arrangement  of  its  voices,  modes,  tenses,  num- 
bers, and  persons.   , 

SECTION  XII.     CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB 
BE  OR  AM. 

252.  The  verb  be  or  am  is  defective.  Its  papts 
are  made  up  of  the  verbs  am,  be,  and  was. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Present,  Am;  Past,  Was;  Per/ Part.,  Been. 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 


Sinyular. 

1st  Person,   I  am, 
2d  Person,  Thou  art, 
3d  Person,  He  is; 


1.  I  was, 

2.  Thou  wast, 

3.  He  was; 


Plural. 

1st  Person.,  We  are, 
2d  Person.,  You  are, 
3d  Person.,  They  are. 

TAST  TENSE, 

J.  We  were, 

2.  You  were, 

3.  They  were. 


100  ETYMOLOGY. 

FUTURE    TENSE    PREDICTIVE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  shall  be,  1  We  shall  be, 

2  Thou  wilt  be,  2  You  will  be, 

3  He  will  be ;  •      3  They  will  be. 

FUTURE  TENSE  TROMISSIVE. 

1  I  will  be,  1  We  will  be, 

2  Thou  shalt  be,  2  You  shall  be, 

3  He  shall  be ;  3  They  shall  be. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1  I  have  been,  1  We  have  been, 

2  Thou  hast  been,  2  You  have  been, 

3  He  has  been  j  3  They  have  been. 

PAST    PERFECT   TENSE. 

1  I  had  been,  1  We  had  been, 

1   Thou  hadst  been,       2  You  had  been, 
3  Pie  had  been  \  3  They  had  heen. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE  PREDICTIVE. 

1  I  shall  have  been,  1  We  shall  have  been, 

2  Thou  wilt  have  been,  2  You  will  have  been, 

3  He  will  have  been  ;  3  They  will  have  been. 

FUTRE  PERFECT  TENSE    PROMISSIVE. 

1  I  will  have  been,  1  We  will  have  been, 

2  Thou  shalt  have  been,        2  Y'ou  shall  have  been, 

3  He  shall  have  been  ;  3  They  shall  have  been. 

POTENTIAL   MODE. 

PRESENT. 

Signs, — may,  can,  must.     Inflect  with  each. 

1  I  may  be,  1  We  may  be, 

2  Thou  mayest  be,  2  You  may  be, 

3  He  may  be  \  3  They  may  be. 


CONJUGATION   OF   BE   OR   AM.  101 

PAST.  * 

Signs, — might,    could,     would,    and    should. 
Inflect  with  each. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  might  be,  1  We  might  be, 

2  Thou  mightst  be,  2  You  might  be, 

3  He  might  be ;  3  They  might  be. 

PRESENT  PERFECT. 

Signs. — may  have,  can  have,  must  have. 

1  I  may  have  been,  1  We  may  have  been, 

2  Thou  mayst  have  been,      2  You  may  have  been, 

3  He  may  have  been;  3  They  may  have  been, 

PAST    PERFECT. 

Signs. — might  have,  could  have,  would  have, 
should  have. 

1  I  might  have  been,  1  We  might  have  been, 

2  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2  You  might  have  been, 

3  He  might  have  been ;        3  They  might  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE, 

CONTINGENT    FUTURE  OR  PRESENT. 

1  If  I  be,  1  If  we  be, 

2  If  thou  be,  2  If  you  be, 

3  If  he  be;  3  If  they  be. 

HYPOTHETICAL      FORM    OR    PAST, 

1  If  I  were,  1  If  we  were, 

2  If  thou  wert,  2  If  you  were, 

3  If  he  were  ;  3  If  they  were. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 
2  Be  thou  or  you.  ,    2  Be  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present,  To  be.  Per/ret,  To  have  been. 


102  ETYMOLOGY. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  Being.  Perfect  Been.    Compound,  Having  been 

SYNOPSIS. 

Indicative .  Pot  en  tiaL 

Present,  I  ana.  Present,  I  may  can  or  must  be. 

Past,  I  was.  Past,  I  might  be. 

Future,  I  shall  or  will  be.  Pres  Perf , I  may  have  been. 

Prcs.  Perf,  I  have  been.  Past  Perf ,  I  might  have  been. 
Past  Perf,  I  had  been.  subjunctive. 

Put.  Perf,  I  shall  or  will  h&vePresent,  If  I  be. 

been.  Past,  If  I  were. 

IMPERATIVE. 

Sin.,  2.  Be  thou.  Phi.,  2.  Be  you. 

INFINITIVES. 

Pres.,  To  be.  Perf,  To  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  Being.  Perf,  Been.     Compound,  Having  been. 

SECTION  XIII.     CONJUGATION   OF  THE  VERB 

LOVE. 

253.  PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Pics.,  Love;  Past,  Loved;  Perf  Participle,  Loved. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  love,  1  We  love, 

2  Thou  lovest,  2  You  love, 

3  He  loves;  3  They  love. 

•  PAST    TENSE. 

1  I  loved,  1  "We  loved, 

2  Thou  lovedst,  2  You  loved, 
2  He  loved;  3  They  loved. 


CONJUGATION    OP   LOVE.  103 

FUTURE    TENSE. 

Let  the  pupil  give  the  predictive  and  promissivc  forms, 
nfiparately. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  shall  or  will  love,  1  We  shall  or  will  love. 

2  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,      2  You  shall  or  will  love, 

3  He  shall  or  wUl  love;         3  They  shall  or  will  love. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1  I  had  loved,  1  We  ha\e  loved, 

2  Thou  hast  loved,  2  You  have  loved, 

3  He  has  loved;  3  They  have  loved. 

PAST    PFRFECT   TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  had  loved,  1  We  had  loved, 

2  Thou  hadst  loved,  2  You  had  loved, 

3  He  had  loved;  3  They  had  loved, 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,!    We  shall     or    will   have 

2  Thou  shalt  or   wilt  have     loved, 

loved.  2    You    shall    or    will    have 

3  He  shall  or  will  have  loved;     loved, 

3  They    shall    or    will    have 
loved. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PRESENT. 

1  I  may  love.  1   We  may  love. 

2  'Thou  mayest  love,  2  You  may  love, 

3  lie  may  love  ;  3  They  may  love. 

FAST. 

1  I  might  love,  1  We  might  love. 

2  Thou  mightst  love,  2  You  might  love, 
8   He  might  love  ;  3  They  might  Iovq, 


104  'ETYMOLOGY. 

PRESENT    PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  may  have  loved,      1  We  may  have  loved, 

2  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  2  You  may  have  l#ved,  - 

3  He  may  have  loved ;     3  They  may  have  loved. 

PAST  PERFECT. 

1  "We  might  have  loved,        1  We  might  have  loved, 

2  You  might  have  loved,       2  You  might  have  loved, 

3  They  might  have  loved;     3  They  might  have  loved. 

'  SUBJUNCTIVE, 

CONTINGENT  FUTURE  OR  PRESENT. 

1  If  I  love,  1    If  we  love, 

2  If  thou  love,  2    If  you  love, 

3  If  he  love  ;  3    If  they  love. 

IMPERATIVE'. 

2   Love  thou  or  you  2   Love  ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present,  to  love.  Perfect,  To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect  Loving;  Perfect  Loved;  Compound  Having  Loved 
Conjugate  like  love  the  verbs  learn,  study,  more. 

THE    PROGRESSIVE    FORM. 
254.  The  Progressive  form  is  conjugated  by  adding 
the  Imperfect-  Participle  of  any  verb  to  the  forms 
of  the  verb  to  he. 

SYNOPSIS    OF   LOVE,   PROGRESSIVE    FORM. 
Indicative.  Potential. 

Present^  I  am  loving.  Pres.,  I  may  be  loving. 

Past,  I  was  loving.  Past,  I  might  be  loving. 

Put.,  I  shall  or  will  be  loving.  Pres  Perf.,1  may  have  been 
Pres.  Perf.,1  have  been  loving.  loving. 

Past  Perf.,  I  had  been  loving. Past  Perf.,  I  might  have 
put  Perf,  I  shall  have  been  been  loving, 

loving. 


PROGRESSIVE  EORM  OF  LOVE.        105 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Contingent  Future  or  Present,  If  I  be  loving. 
Hypothetical  or  Past,  If  I  were  loving. 

IMPERATIVE. 

2  Be  thou  or  you  loving.       2  Be  ye  or  you  loving. 

INFINITIVES- 

Present,  To  be  loving.  Perfect,  To  have  been  loving. 

Conjugate  these  forms  through. all  the  numbers 
and  persons. 

SECTION  XIV.     CONJUGATION  OF   LEARN   IN 
THE  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

255.  The  Passive  voice  is  conjugated  by 
joining  the  Perfect  Participle  of  any  verb 
to  the*  forms  of  the  verb  to  be. 

INDICATIVE  MODE.  ' 

FRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  am  learned,.  1  We  are  learned, 

2  Thou  art  learned,  2  You  are  learned, 

3  He  is  learned;  3  They  are  learned. 

FAST    TENSE. 

1  I  was  learned,  1  We  were  learned, 

2  Thou  wast  learned,    '  2   You  were  learned, 

3  He  was  learned ;  3  They  were  learned. 

FUTURE    TENSE,    FREDICTIVE    FOHM. 

1  I  shall  be  learned,  1  We  shall  be  learned, 

2  Thou  wilt  be  learned,  2   You  shall  be  learned, 

3  He  will  be  learned;  3  They  will  b*e  learned. 


103  ETYMOLOGY. 

FUTURE   TENSE    PROMISSIVE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  will  be  learned,  1  We  shall  be  learned, 

2  Thou  shalt  be  learned,       2  You  shall  be  learned, 

3  He  shall  be  learned;  3  They  shall  be  learned. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1  I  have  been  learned,  1  We  have  been  learned, 

2  Thou  hast  been  learned,     2  You  have  been  learned, 

3  He  has  been  learned;         3  They  have  been  learned. 

PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 

1  I  had  been  learned,  1  We  had  been  learned, 

2  Thou  hadst  been  learned,  2  You  had  been  learned. 

3  He  had  been  learned;         3  They  had  been  learned. 

FUTURE    PERFECT    TENSE    (PREDICTIVE    FORM.) 

1  I  shall  have  been  learned,  1  We  shall  have  been  learned, 

2  Thou  wilt  have  been  learned, 2  You  will  have  been  learened 

3  He  will  have  been  learned;  3  They  will  have  been  learned. 
Let  the  pupil  give  the  promissive  form. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PRESENT. 

1  I  may  be  learned,  1  We  may  beflearned, 

2  Thou  mayst  be  learned,      2  You  may  be  learned, 

3  He  may  be  learned  j  3  They  may  be  learned. 

PAST. 

i  I  might  be  learned,  1  We#might  be  learned, 

2  Thou  mightst  be  learned,  2  You  might  be  learned, 

3  He  might  be  learned;         3  They  might  be  learned. 

PRESENT    PERFECT. 

1  I  may  have  been  learned,  1  We  may  have  been  learned, 

2  Thou  mayst  .have  been     2  You  may  have  been  learned, 

learned,  3  They   may  have  been 

3  He  may  have  been  learned;         learned. 


CONJUGATION   OF   LEARN   PASSIVE   VOICE.      107 

PAST    PERFECT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  might  have  been  learned,  1  We  might  have  been  learned, 

2  Thou  mightst  have  been  2  You  mi^hthavebeen  learned, 

learned.  o  They   might  have   been 

0  He  might  have  been  learned         learned. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

CONTINGENT    FUTURE   OR    PRESENT. 

1  If  I  be  learned,  1  If  we  be  learned, 

2  If  thou  be  learned,  2  If  you  be  learned, 

0  If  he  be  learned;  3  If  they  b»  learned. 

< 

HYPOTHETICAL    FORM    OR    PAST. 

1  If  I  were  learned,  1  If  we  were  learned, 

2  If  thou  wert  learned,  2  If  you  were  learned, 

3  If  he  were  learned;  3  If  they  were  learned. 

IMPERATIVE. 

2  Be  thou  or  you  learned.     2  Be  ye  or  you  learned. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present,  To  be  learned.  Perfect,  To  have  been  learned. 

PARTICIPLES- 

Imperfect,  Being  learned;      Perfect,  Learned; 
Compound,  Having  been  learned. 

Inflect  in  like  manner,  love,  play,  move. 
EXERCISES. 

Model.  Studied  is  a  verb,  it  asserts  something;  weak 
or  regular,  it  adds  eel  to  form  its  past  tense;  transitive,  it 
requires  an  object;  indicative  mode,  it  asserts  positively; 
past  tense,  it  denotes  past]  time;  third  singular  to  agree 
with  James,  by  Rule  II. 

James  studies  his  lesson.  They  are  blamed. 
We  were  esteemed.  He  has  heard  the  news. 
James  was  praised  for  his  diligence.  They  will  be 


108  ETYMOLOGY. 

loved  because  they  arc  good.  You  may  be  seated. 
The}^  might  learn  if  they  would  study.  The  work 
will  have  been  finished  by  noon.  I  may  go  if  it 
does  not  rain.     Were  I  he  I  would  not  permit  it. 

Write  sentences  describing  a  door,  an  t range,  the  stove, 
a  slate,  an  oak  tree,  a  pine  tree,  &c. 

Let  the  teacher  assign  exercises  upon  other  familiar 
objects. 

256.  SECTION  XIV.     CONJUGATION  OF  THE 
VERB  TAKE. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Present,  Take;  Past,  Took;  Per/.  Part.,  Taken. 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT    TENSE.       ' 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  take,  1  We  take, 

2  Thou  takest,  2  You  take, 

3  He  takes ;  3  They  take. 

PAST    TENSE. 

1  I  took,  1  We  took, 

2  Thou  tookest,  2  You  took, 

3  He  took;  3  They  took. 

FUTURE    TENSE.      GlVC    both  forms. 

1  I  shall  take,  &c.  1  We  shall  take,  &c. 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1  I  have  taken,  &e.  1  We  have  taken,  &c. 

PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 

1  I  had  taken,  &c.  1  We  had  taken,  &c. 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1  I  shall  have  taken,  &c.      I  We  shall  have  taken,  &c. 


INTERROGATIVE    FORM    OF    LEARN.  109 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

PRESENT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1  I  may,  can,  or  must  take.  1  We  may,  can,  or  must  take. 

PAST. 

1  I  might  take.  1  We  might  take. 

PRESENT    PERFECT. 

1  I  may  have  taken.  1  We  may  have  taken. 

PAST    PERFECT, 

1  I  might  have  taken.  1  We  might  have  taken. 

IMPERATIVE.      * 

2  Take  thou  or  you.  2  Take  "ye  or  you. 

INFINITIVE. 

Present,  To  take.  Perfect,  To  have  taken. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

CONT.    FUT.    OR    PRES. 

1  If  I  take.  1  If  we  take. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect,  Taking;  Perfect,  Taken; 

Compound,  Having  taken. 

257.  The  Indicative  and  Potential  modes  are 
used  in  asking  questions. 

268.  Learn  is  conjugated  interrogatively  as  fol 
lows : — 

Indicative.  Potential, 

Present,  Do  I  learn  ?  Present,  May  I  learn  ? 

Past,  Did  I  learn?  Past,  Might  t  learn t 

Future,  Shall  I  learn?  Pres.  Per/.,  May   I  have 

Pres.  Per/.,  Have  I  learned?  learned? 

Past  Ptrf.,  Had  I  learned?  Patt+Perf.,  Might  I  have 
hit.   Perf.,  Shall   I  have  learned  ? 


Put.   Per/., 


learned  ? 
10 


110  ETYMOLOGY. 

Also,  am  I  learning?  Was  I  learning?  &c. 
259.   Verbs  are  conjugated  negatively  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Indicative.  Potential.     % 

Pres.,  I  love  not,  am  notlov-  Pres.,  I  may  not  love. 

ing,  do  not  love.        Past,  I  might^not  love. 
Past,  I  loved  not,was  not  lov-  Pres  Perf.,  I  may  not  have 

ing,  did  not  love.  loved. 

Put.,  I  shall  not  love,  be    Past  Per/.,  I  might  not  have 

loving.  loved. 

Pres.  Per/.,  I  have  not  loved. 
I^ast  Per/.,  I  had  not  loved. 
Fut.  Per/. ,  I  shall  not  have 
loved. 

Suly'unctive.  Infinitives. 

Pres.,  If  I  do  not  love.  Pres.,  Not  to  love. 

Per/.,  Not  to  have  loved. 

.      PARTICIPLES. 

Imp.,  Not  loving;  Per/i  Not  loved; 

Comp.,  Not  having  loved. 

260.    NEGATIVE    INTERROGATIVE    FORMS. 

Do  I  not  love?  Did  I  not  love  1  Shall  I  not  love  ?  May 
1  not  love  ?  Might  I  not  love  ?  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

Model.  Has  James  been  studying  ?  Has  been  study- 
ing is  a  regular  or  weak,  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  pro- 
gressive interrogative  form,  indicative  mode;  present  per- 
fect tense,  third  singular,  and  agrees  with  James,  by 
Rule  II. 

The  time  is  approaching.     "Were  you  listening  ? 

Ig  he  not  at  home  ?     Will  your  father  not  come  ? 

Might  he  not  have  learned  ?    Did  you  not  hear 

the  news  ?     He  has  not  arrived. 


LIST    OF   IRREGULAR   VERBS.  Ill 

SECTION  XV.     THE   STRONG   OR  IRREGULAR 

VERBS. 

261,  The  Irregular  verbs,  as  commonly  given, 
contain  several  distinct  classes. 

1st.  The  strong  verbs  which  form  their  past  tense  by 
changing  the  vowel  of  the  present  and  do  not  add  d,  t,  or 
ed.  Their  participle  past  regularly  ended  in  en,  which  is 
now  often  wanting. 

2d.  Those  which  now  form  their  past  tense  in  ed,  but 
their  participle  in  en.  They  were  formerly  pure  strong 
verbs. 

3d.  Those  that  have  both  a  strong  and  weak  form. 

4th.  Those  that  both  change  the  vowel  and  add  t  or  d, 
as  seek,  sough-t ';  bring,  brough-t ;  sell,  sol-d. 

5th.  Some  Defective  verbs;  as,  am,  loas,  been. 

For  convenience  in  reference  they  will  be  given  together. 
Those  that  add  a  termination  to  form  the  past  tense  must 
be  parsed  as  weak;  those  that  do  not,  as  strong. 

The  true  str  on  g  verbs  will  be  spaced,  as  in  abide. 

The  third  class  will  be  marked  R.)  the  fourth,  W."  the 
fifth  D.,  Forms  not  now  used  are  put  in  italics. 

Those  that  are  contracts  of  weak  or  regular  verbs  like 
sleep,  slept  for  steeped,  will  be  excluded. 

2<J2.    LIST  OF   VERBS    COMMONLY    CALLED   IRREGULAR. 

Present.  Past.  Perfect  Participle. 

Abide,    .  abode,  abode. 

Am,  D.  was,  been. 

Arise,  arose,  arisen. 

Awake,  awoke,  R.  awaked. 

Be  ar  ,to  bring/or  thbore,  bare,  born. 

Bear,  to  earn/,       bore,  bare,  borne. 

Beat,  beat,  beaten,  beat. 

Begin,  began,  begun. 

Behold,  beheld.  beheld. 

Bescecn,  besought,  W.  besought. 

Bid,  bid,  oade,  •  bidden,  bid. 

Bind,  bound,  band,  bound.bo((ii(Un}rare. 

Bite,  bit,  bat,  bitten,  bit. 


112 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Present. 

Bleed, 

Blow, 

Break.  * 

Breed, 

Bring, 

Burst, 

Buy. 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Chide, 

Choose.  * 

( 1 1  e  a  v  e ,  to  split, 

Cleave ,  to  adher 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

Come, 

Cost, 

( !  r  o  w , 

(Jut, 

Dare,  to  venture, 

Dig, 

Do, 

Draw, 

Drink, 

Drive, 

V)  a  t , 

Fall, 

F  e  e  d , 

Fight, 

F  i  n  d  . 

Fling,       * 

Fly, 

F  o  r  g  e  t , 

Porsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Give, 

Glide, 

Go,  D. 

Grave, 

Grind, 


Pa*L 

hied, 
blew, 

broke,  lira  he, 
bred, 

brought.  TV. 
burst,  brast) 
bought,  W. 
cast, 

caught,  W. 
chid,  cJiode, 
chose, 
cleft,  clave, 
e, cleaved,  clave, 
clung,  clang, 
clad,  H. 
came. 
cost. 
crew, 
cut, 

durst,  11. 
dug,  B. 
did", 
drew, 
drank, 

drove,  drave, 
ate,  eat, 
fell, 
fed, 

fought,  W. 
found,  /and, 
flung,  Jiang, 
flew, 
forgot, 
forsook, 
froze, 
got,  gat, 
gave, 
glode,  II . 
went, 

graved,  grove, 
ground,  grand, 


Perfect  Participle, 

bled, 
blown. 

broken,  broke. 
bred, 
brought, 
burst,  bursten. 
bought,  boughten. 
cast. 
caught. 

chidden,  chid, 
chosen, 
cleft,  cloven, 
cleaved. 
elung. 
clad, 
conic, 
cost. 

crown,  crowed, 
cut. 
durst, 
dug. 
done, 
drawn. 

drunk,  drunJcen. 
driven, 
eaten, 
fallen, 
fed. 
fought, 
found.      # 
•  flung, 
flown. 

forgot,  forgotten. 
forsaken. 
frozen, 
gotten,  got. 
given. 
glidden. 
gone, 
graven, 
ground. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


113 


Present. 

Pkst. 

Perfect  Participle 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

Hang,  hint/, 

hung,  hang,  R. 

hung. 

Heave', 

hove,  R, 

hoven. 

Help, 

holp,  R. 

holpen. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn. 

Hide, 

hid, 

hidden,  hid. 

Hit, 

hit,  R. 

hit. 

Hojd, 

held, 

holdcn,  held. 

Hurt. 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Knit, 

knit, 

knit. 

Know, 

knew. 

known. 

Lade, 

laded, 

laden. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

Lie, 

%> 

lain. 

Light, 

lit,  R. 

lit, 

Load, 

loaded, 

loaded,  laden' 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

M  e  1 1 , 

molt,  R. 

molten. 

M  o  w , 

mowed,  men:, 

mown. 

Plead, 

pled,  R. 

pled. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Quit. 

quit,  R. 

quit, 

Read, 

read,  (pron.  red.) 

read  (red.) 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode, 

ridden. 

Ring, 

rang,  rung, 

rung. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riven. 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

sawn. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Seek. 

sought,  W\ 

sought. 

Seethe, 

sod, 

sodden. 

i^ct. 

set, 

set, 

S  h  a  k  e , 

shook, 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped.  s/wpr: 

Bhapen. 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaven. 

S  li  e  ar ,    .. 

sheared.  sh>>r>\ 

shorn. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

S  li  i  n  e  , 

shone, 

shone. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot, 

114 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Present. 

Show, 

Shed, 

Shrink. 

Shut, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

SI  ink, 

Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak , 

Speed, 

Spin. 

Sp.it,' 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Steal, 

Stick, 

Sting, 

Stink, 

S  t  r  ew  , 

Stride, 

Strike, 

String, 

Strive, 

Strow, 

Swear, 

Swell, 

Swim, 

Swing, 

T  a  k  e  , 

Teach, 

Tear, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrive, 


Past. 

showed,  shew, 

shed, 

shrunk,  shrank, 

shut, 

sung,  sang. 

sunk,  sank* 

sat,  sate, 

slew, 

slid,  slode, 

slung,  slang, 

slunk, 

slit,  slat,  R. 

smote, 

sowed, 

spoke,  spake, 

sped, 

spun,  span, 

spit,  spa{ 

spread, 

sprung,  sprang, 

stood, 

stole,  stale, 

stuck,  stack, 

stung,  stang, 

stunk,  stank, 

strewed, 

strode, 

struck,  strake, 

strung,  Strang, 

strove, 

strowed, 

swore,  sware, 

swelled,  swoll, 

swam,  swum, 

swung,  sivang, 

took, 

taught,  W. 

tore,  tare, 

told,  W. 

thought,  W. 

throve, 


Pe rfect  Pa  r ticrip  le . 

shown. 

shed. 

shrunk. 

shut. 

sung. 

sunk. 

sat,  sitten. 

slain. 

slidden. 

slung. 

slunk. 

slit. 

smitten. 

sown. 

spoken. 

sped. 

spun. 

spit. 

spread. 

sprung. 

stood. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stunk. 

strown. 

stridden. . 

stricken,  struck. 

strung. 

striven. 

strown. 

sworn. 

swollen. 

swum. 

swung. 

taken. 

taught. 

torn. 

told. 

thought. 

thriven , 


WEAK    VERBS. 

11« 

Present. 

Fast. 

Perfect  Participle. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Thrust, 

thrust. 

thrust. 

Tread, 

trod,  trad, 

trodden,  trod. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen. 

W  e  a  r  , 

wore,  w arc, 

worn. 

Weave, 

wove, 

woven. 

Wed, 

wed,  11. 

wed. 

Wet, 

wet,  11. 

wet. 

Win, 

won,  wan, 

won. 

Wind, 

wound,  wand, 

wound. 

Work, 

wrought,  W.  R. 

wrought. 

W  rung, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote,  writ, 

written. 

In  this  table  all  such  words  as  cut,  cost,  that  do  not 
receive  any  modification  are  really  weak  or  regular  verbs. 
They  cannot,  from  the  laws  which  govern  our  sounds, 
receive  an  addition.  They  are  placed  here  for  convenience. 

263.  The  Past  tense  and  Perfect  Participle  of 
these  verbs  must  not  "be  used  instead  of  each  other, 


EXERCISES    FOR    CORRECTION. 

The  horses  drawee!  the  carriage.  The  horses 
were  drove.  The  birds  have  flew  away.  The  stream 
has  froze  over.  They. have  wrote  to-day.  The 
meeting  has  began.  She  has  sang  a  song.  The 
sun  has  rose.  They  elone  their  work.  My  watch 
was  stole.  The  ball  was  throwed  away.  The  apples 
have  fell.  The  letter  was  writ.  The  letter  was 
wrote  badly.  We  rid  a  mile.  I  have  not  saw  him. 


SECTION  XVI. 


CLASSES  OF  WEAK  OR  REGU- 
LAR VERBS. 


264.  All  verbs  that  in  present  use  form  their 
past  tense  by  adding  d,  t,  or  cd  are  weak  verbs. 


116  ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  They  include  those  also  that  from  their  end- 
ings cannot  receive  such  an  addition;  as,  cost, 
cost. 

2.  At  present  the  past  tense  and  past  participle 
have  generally  the  same  form. 

3.  There  are  three  classes  of  these  verbs. 

I.  First,  those  that  add  3,  t,  or  cd  without  a 

change;  as,  learn,  learned,  love,  loved,  toss,  tossed 

(pron.  tost,)   Ed  is  now  added  in  sound  to  verbs 

ending  in  d  or  t  only. 

In  solemn  discourse  ed  is  heard  as  a  separate  syllable  in 
words  like  loved,  &c.  The  habit  of  the  language  is  to 
say  lov'd,  dream* t  for  dreamed. 

II.  Second,  those  that  form  their  past  tense  by 
adding  d  or  t  and  shortening  the  vowel  of  the 
present;  as  flee,  fled;  keep,  kept. 

EXAMPLES. 

Feel,  felt.  Lose,  lost.  Bereave,  bereft. 

i  Deal,  dealt.  Shoe,  shod.  Cleave,  cleft. 

Kneel,  knelt.  Dream,  dreamt.       Leave,  left. 

Creep,  crept.  Lean,  leant. 

Weep,  wept.  Mean,  meant. 

(a)  When  the  word  ends  in  dor  t,  a  second  d  or 
t  cannot  be  added.  Then  the  past  tense  is  formed 
by  shortening  the  vowel ;  as,  meel,  met;  hide,  hid; 
light,  lit;  shoot,  shot;  bleed,  bled ;  breed,  bred ; 
feed,  fed ;  lead,  led;  read,  read  (pron.  red;)  speed, 
sped, 

(6)  Some  verbs  end  in  d  and  have  a  short  vowel. 
These  change  d  to  t;  as,  bend,  bent;  blend,  blent ; 
rend,  rent;  wend,  went;  build,  built;  gild,  gilt ; 
gird,  girt. 

Except, — shed,  shed;    shred,  shred;    bid,  bid; 
spread,  spread ;  rid,  rid. 


WEAK   VERBS.  117 

(c)  Some  end  in  t  and  have  a  short  vowel.  Their 
past  is  the  same  as  the  present;  as,  cast,  cast ;  cost 
cost;  cut,  cut;  hit,  hit;    knit,  knit;  put,  put ;  set, 
set,  <f*c. 

III.  Third,  those  that  add  d  or  t  and  change  the 
vowel. 

The  sounds  of  h,  g,  gh,  di,  ng,  and  y  for  Saxon*  g,  are 
interchangeable. 

Examples, — beseech,  besought;  bring,  brougTit ; 
buy,  bought;  catch,  caught;  seek,  sought;  teach, 
taught ;  think,  though  ;  work,  wrought;  owe,  ought. 

4.  Made  is  contracted  for  maked  (Sax.  macode); 
had  for  haved. 

5.  Verbs  like  seek,  sough-t;  bring,  brough-t,  show 
both  processes  at"  work  in  the  same  wprd ;  those 
like  grave,  graved,  graven,  show  a  change  from 
strong  to  weak  in  the  past  tense. 

265.  There  are  many  verbs  that  are  now  weak 
that  were  in  Saxon  strong ;  as, 

English.  Saxon.  English.  Saxon. 

Mete,  meted.      Mete,  maete.  Wade,  waded.  Wade,  wod. 

]>read,  dreaded.  Draede.dred.  Grave,  graved,  Grafe,  grof. 

Sleep,  slept.         Slape,  slep.      Creep,  crept.  Creope,  creap. 

Bake,  baked.       Bace,  bok.        Dive,  dived.  Deofe,  deaf. 

Many  strong  verbs  have  become  weak,  but  no 
weak  verbs  ever  become  strong.  All  the  strong 
verbs  are  of  Saxon  origin. 

SECTION   XVII.      DEFEC'-HTE   AND   UN1PER- 
SONAL   VERBS. 

206.  A  few  verbs  are  Defective  or  wanting 
in  some  of  their  parts,  which  are  partly  supplied 


118  ETYMOLOGY. 

by  other  words;  as,  am,  was,  been,  from  the  verbs 
am,  vias,  and  be  ;  go,  went,  gone  from  go  and  wend. 
267.  The  other  defective  verbs  are  entirely  wan- 
ting in  some  of  their  parts.  They  are: — 

Present.        Past  Per/.  Past.  Present.        Past.      Per/.  Past. 

Can,  could, .  Quoth,       quoth,       . 

Will,  would, .  Wit,  wot.  . 

Shall,  should, .  Beware.     .      . 

May.,  might,  > — -.  Hark,  in  the  imperative  only. 

Must,  must, . 

Do  in  "this  will  do,"  "this  will  answer  the  pur- 
pose," is  a  different  verb  from  do  to  act. 

2(58.  A  few  verbs  are  found  only  in  the  third 
person  singular. 

They  are  called  u  n  ip  e  r  s  o  n  al ,  that  is,  having 
but  one  person;  as,  it  rains,  it  hails,  it  snoivs. 

269.  Methinks',  methought  are  unipersonal  com- 
pounds of  the  Dative  case,  me  and  the  verb  think 
which  means  seems  or  appears.  Methinhs  means, 
it  seems  or  appears  to  me.  This  verb  think  is  not 
of  the  same  origin  as  the  verb  think,  to  consider. 
The  first  is  from  thin  can,  the  second  from  then  can. 

EXERCISES. 

Did  you  see  the  rainbow  after  the  shower? 
Victory  perched  upon  our  banners.  It  is  raining 
on  the  hills.  How  hard  it  rains  !  Thou  canst 
not  do  it.  Incline  my  heart  unto  thy  testimonies. 
Bind  them  upon  thy  fingers",  write  them  upon  the 
table  of  thy  heart.  Methinks  I  hear  him  coming. 
It  thundered  heavily.  It  seemed  as  if  the  foun- 
tains of  the  great  deep  were  broken  up. 


ADVERBS.  119 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

ADVERBS. 

270.  I  say,  "He  runs  swiftly."  "She  speaks 
correctly. 

Swiftly  and  concctly  tell  how  the  action  is  per- 
formed and  modify  the  verbs. 

1.  They  also  modify  adjectives  and  other  ad- 
verbs; as,  very  careful,  very  slowly. 

2.  They  are  called  adverbs,  which  means  joined 
to  a  verb. 

271.  Adverbs  are  words  joined  to  verbs, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs  to  modify 
them. 

They  cannot  form  the  essential  parts  of  propo- 
sitions, but  serve  only  to  modify  them. 

272.  Adverbs  are  divided  into  two  classes,  anal- 
ogous to  descriptive  and  definitive  adjectives ; 
adverbs  of  manner,  and  circumstantial 
adverbs. 

273.  Those  of  the  first  class  are  derived  from 

adjectives  and  nouns.  They  are  notional  words. 

They  modify  the  predicate  absolutely  without  reference 
to  the  subject;  as,  "  The  child  sleeps  sweetly."  The  tree 
grows  slowly.     He  rides  homeward. 

274.  Those  of  the  second  class  do  not  modify 

the  predicate  directly,  but  the  whole  assertion ; 

as,   "He  lives  here."     "He  speaks  thus"    "He 

studies  now" 

They  are  nearly  all  of  pronominal  origin  or  imply  a 
definitive  adjective  in  their  meaning;  as,  here  equals  in 
this  place ;  thus,  in  this  manner.  They  are  relational  words. 


120  ETYMOLOGY. 

275.  In  respect  to  use,  adverbs  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  modifiers  of  verbs;  modifiers  of 
adjectives  ;  modifiers  both  of  verbs,  adjectives,  and 

other  adverbs. 

1.  The  larger  part  modify  verbs.  Those  that  modify 
adjectives  are  those  that  express  intensity  or  degrqe.  Some 
are  found  after  both  verbs  and  adjectives,  but  with  a  dif- 
ferent meaning  in  each  case  j  as,  "  He  thinks  as  I  think," 
as  denotes  manner.  "  He  was  as  wise  as  learned,"  as 
denotes  degree. 

2.  Those  that  modify  adverbs  are  the  same  as  those  mat 
modify  adjectives.  They  modify  the  adjective  contained 
in  the  adverb;  as,  "  He  acted  wisely."  "  He  acted  in  a 
wise  manner." 

DERIVATION   01?   ADVERBS. 

276.  A  few  are  primitive  words,  that  is^  not 
derived  from  any  other  part  of  speech,  so  far  as  we 
can  trace  them;  as,  now,  soon,  far,  oft.    - 

277.  The  remainder  are  derived  variously ;  as, 
1st.  From  nouns.     Home.  «  to  the  house,"  an  objec- 
tive case  used  adverbially  ;  as,  "He  goes  home."    Needs, 
"  of  necessity,"  a  possessive  case  ;    as,  "  He  must  needs 
go."      Always,  noways,  from   all-way*,    no-ways,  old  pos- 
sessives.      Nightly,  away,    a-way  from  night    and   way. 
Whilom  a  dative  case   of  while,  time.     Indeed,  in  truth. 
To-day  and  to-night  are  very  old  adverbial  compounds. 

2d.  From  adjectives.  Unawares,  once,  twice, 
thrice,  else,  are  possessive  cases  of  adjectives. 

Seldom,  a  dative  from  seld. 

A  large  number  are  formed  by  adding  ly  ;  while  some 
adjectives  are  used  as  adverbs  without  change  of  form ;  as 
"  Favors  come  thick  upon  him."  "  Slow  tolls  the  village 
clock"  "  Open  thy  hand  wide." 

Combinations  like  in  vain,  in  public,  in  general,  in  secret, 
are  called  adverbial  phrases. 

3d.  From  pronouns.  Here,  there,  where,  hither, 
thither,  whither,  hence,  thence,  whence,  then,  tvhen,  so,  as, 
how,  and  the  compounds  herein,  hereof  &c. 


CLASSES    OF    ADVERBS.  ,121 

# 
4th.  Prepositions  used  as   adverbs  ;  as  of,  on,  up, 
out,  by,  for,  in,  with,  to,  and  their  compounds. 

COMPARISON    OF    ADVERBS. 

278.  Some  adverbs,  especially  those  of  manner, 
arc  compared.  They  are  compared  like  adjec- 
tives. 

1.  Those  ending  in  ly  are  compared  by  more 
and  most,  less  and  least;  as,  wisely,  more  iviscly, 
most  tuisely ;  kindly,  less  kindly,  least  kindly. 

2.  Others  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  est ; 
as,  soon,  sooner,  soonest;  often,  oftener,  oflenest. 

3.  A  few  are  irregular;  as,  little,  less,  least ;  much, 
more,  most;  badly  or  ill,  icorse,  worst ;  well,  better, 
best;  far,  farther,  farthest,  ;  forth,  further,  furthest. 

279,    CLASSIFICATION    OF    ADVERBS. 

1.  Adverbs  of  manner.  These  mostly  end 
in  ly,  which  is  from  Saxon  lice,  English  like?  as 
manly,  lovely,  kindly,  fie.  Others  are  so,  thus,  how- 
ever, somehoiu,  else,  like,  well,  ill,  fain*  lief. 

2.  Adverbs  of  place.  (1)  In  a  place  ;  he$e, 
there,  where,  yonder  and  their  compounds;  (2)  To 
a  place;  hither,  thither,  whitket  and  compounds: 

(3)  From  a  place ;    hence,   thence,   whence,   fie.    (4j 
Toward  a  place;  hitherward,  forward,  backward,  fie. 

3.  Adverbs  of  time.  (1)  Present;  noid,ycf, 
to~day,  i^rcsently,  fie.  (2)  Future;  henceforth,  here- 
after,  by  and  by,  soon,  ere  long.  (3)  Past;  yesterday, 
already,   lately,   heretofore,  since,  ago,  hitherto,   &c. 

(4)  Time  relative ;  tchen,  then,  while,  whilst,  before, 
after,  till,  until,  betimes,  early,  late.    (5)  Timeabso- 

11 


122  ETYMOLOGY. 

lute;  ever,  aye,  always,  never.     (6)  Time  repeated-; 
often,  oft,  sometimes,  seldom,  rarely. 

4.  Adverbs  of  o  r  d  e  r  .  First,  secondly,  thirdly, 
lastly,  finally.    . 

5.  Adverbs  of  number.  .  Once,  twice,  thrice, 
four  times. 

6.  Adverbs  of  Degree.  More,  most,  less, 
least,  well,  better,  as,  so,  very,  rather,  fully,  chiefly, 
almost,  nearly,  quite. 

7.  Adverbs  of  doubt.  Perhaps,  per  adven- 
ture, possibly,  perchance. 

8.  Adverbs  of  in  ter rogation.  How >  why, 
when,  whence,  where,  $c. 

9.  Adverbs  of  affirmation.  Yea,  yes,' 
truly,  verily,  indeed,  £c.  , 

10.  Adverbs  of  negation.  Nay,  no,  not, 
nowise. 

Some  fall  into  various  classes  according  to  their 
meaning  in  different  sentences. 

280.  Some  adverbs  are  used  independently,  or, 
rather,  they  embrace  in  themselves  a  whole  prop- 
osition ;  as  aye,  yea,  no,  amen.  As,  "  Are  you 
going?"    Yes.    That  is,  "I  am  going." 

281.  jfAcrcatthe  beginning  of  sentences  does  not 
modify  any  word,  and  is  a  mere  expletive.  It  serves 
to  throw  the  subject  after  the  verb;  as,  u  There  is 
no  ddubt  of  the  fact."     "  There  was  a  man." 

CONJUNCTIVE   ADVERBS. 

282.  Some  adverbs  not  only  modify  but  also 
connect  sentences;  as,  "I  saw  him  when  he  came." 
When  connects  "I  saw  him  "  and  "He  came"  and 
modifies  came.     "When  he  came"  modifies  saw. . 


PREPOSITIONS.  123 

283.  The  conjunctive  adverbs  are  :  after,  before, 
er eleven,  since,  how,  till,  until,  when,  where,  while, 
whilst,  whenever,  no  sooner,  as  soon  as,  as  far  as,  fyc. 

284.  Phrases  like  "as  far  as"  should  be  ana- 
lyzed. "JEEe  writes  as  well  as  his  brother."  As  well 
as  connects  the  two  sentences.  The  first  as  mod- 
ifies well;  as  well  modifies  writes;  the  se^nd  as 
modifies  writes  understood  and'is  df|uaj  to  as  well. 
As  well  as  is  equivalent  to  that  well  which.  The 
first  as  is  demonstrative,  the  second  relative. 

EXERCISES. 
Model.     He  sleeps  soundly.      Soundly  is  an  adverb  of 
manner  and  modifies  deeps,  by  Rule  XVI. 

The  storm  rages  violently.  The  hour  will  soon 
arrive.  The  news  came  to-day.  Roots  grow 
downward.  He  lived  almost  in  vain.  Where  is 
my  friend  ?  He  gives  twice  who  gives  cheerfully.. 
When  the  rain  ceases,  I  shall  return.  As  soon  as 
you  reach  home,  write  to  me. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

285.  The  Preposition  is  a  word  that  shows  the 
relation  between  its  object  and  some  other  word  in 
the  same  sentence ;  as,  "  He  comes  with  me."  With 
shows  the  relation  between  me  and  comes.  Or, 
the  Preposition  is  a  word  that  does  not  form 
a  part  of  the  proposition,  but  which  alone  or  in 
connection  with  nouns  and  pronouns  modifies  the 
members  of  the  proposition. 


124  ETYMOLOGY. 

The  preposition  with  its  object  is  termed  an 
adjunct. 

286.  They  perform  three  separate  offices. 

1.  First,  they  are  used  in  forming  compound 
"words ;  as,  down-f-dh,  out-cry,  o/f-spring,  over  -flow, 
■understand,  &c. 

2.  Second,  they  are  used  as  modifiers  of  verbs; 
as,  ( 'He  rides  a^out:"  "To  cast  up  accounts."  '\I 
keep  under  frjy  body." 

3.  Third,  together  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  they 
serve  as  modifiers  of  verbs,  nouns  and  adjectives; 
as,  "He  came  with  me."  "  The  reward  of  virtue." 
"Fond  of 2>lay." 

287.  The  older  primitive  prepositions  express  the  di- 
rection of  the  motion  or  activity  of  the  modified  word  ;  asj 
u  He  goes  up  "  expresses  the  direction  of  the  motion,  "He 
goes  up  the  hill,"  limits  it  more  definitely.  Their  later 
meanings  are  derived  from  these. 

Their  primary  force  seems  to  be  that  of  adverbs ;  a$ 
"  He  went  up."  This  expression  may  now  be  modified  by 
various  objects;  as,  He  went  up  the  hill,  wp  the  road,  up  the 
street,  &e.  * 

288.  Prepositions  are  of  two  classes,  simple 
and  compound  or  derived  prepositions. 

280.  The  simple  prepositions  are: — At,  by, 
down,  ere,  for,  from,  in,  of,  on,  over,  round,  since,  till, 
to,  through,  under,  up,  with.  Also,  after,  the  com- 
parative of  aft. 

290.  Compound  Prepositions.  First, 
compounds  with  a.  A  in  a-board  is  a  preposition 
meaning  on  or  in. 

Examples  :  A-board,  a-bove,  about,  across,  against, 
along,amid,  amidst,  among,  amongst,  around,athwart, 
Aboard  is  equal  to  on  board;  amid,  on  or  in  mid,  &c. 


CLASSES   OF   PREPOSITIONS.  125 

Second,  compounds  with  be;  as,  Before,  behind, 
below,  beneath,  beside,  besides,  between,  betwixt,  beyond. 

Be  means  by  ;  as,  beside  means  by  the  side  of. 

rlhird,  compounds  of  prepositions  with  preposi- 
tions or  adverbs,  hi-to,  out-of,  through- out,  to-ward. 
towards,  upon,  until,  auto,  underneath,  within,  without. 

Prepositional  phrases,  according  to,  in  respect  of, 
&c.  Notwithstanding  is  compounded  of  not,  with. 
and  participle  standing. 

291.  Bating \bearing,  concurring,  during,  excepting, 
regarding,  respecting,  touching,  $c,  sometimes  treat- 
ed as  prepositions  are  properly  participles.  Save 
and  except  are  properly  imperatives.  Near,  nigh, 
like  and  unliJce  are  adjectives  followed  by  the  objec- 
tive or  more  properly  the  dative. 

202.  Most  prepositions  arrange  themselves  in  pairs. 
as  in  and  out;  to  and  from,}  before  and  behind;  up  and 
down  ;  above  and  beloic  ;   into  and  out  of 

293.  Prepositions  in  all  languages  require  the 
noun  following*  them  to  be  in  an  oblique  case. 

In  English  they  are  followed  by  the  objective. 

294.  This  is  because  ease  endings  and  prepositions  ex- 
press the  same  idea,  direction  ;  and  hence,  when  the  case 
endings  are  forgotten  or  lost,  the  prepositions  take  their 
place.  This  explains  the  use  of  prepositions  as  modifiers 
of  verbs  without  objects  following. 

295.  The  usual  definition  of  prepositions,  that  the}* 
show  the  relation  between  their  objects  and  other  words. 
is  imperfect  since  thai  is  not  their  primary  use,  and  doe.-* 
not  explain  their  use  in  the  first  and  second  cases. 

EXERCISES. 

Model,  lie  came  with  me.  With  is  a  preposition,  h 
8BOW8  the  relation  between  mc  and  came,  by  Rule  XVIL 


126  ETYMOLOGY. 

Me  is  a  personal  pronoun,  substantive  kind;  first  singu- 
lar, objective  case  after  with,  by  Rule  XVIII. 

The  clouds  lay  upon  the  tops  of  the  mountains. 

I  heard  the  crash  of  the  pointed  rocks  through 

the  bottom  of  the  ship.     lie  was  fond  of  study. 

The  city  of  Rome  was  founded  according  to  story 

by  Romulus.     James  was  going  up  the  hill  as  the 

sun  went  down.     The  moon  rose  behind  the  hills 

and  tipped  the  trees  with  her  silvery  light.     I  go 

up  and  you  go  down. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

296.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  con- 
nect sentences  and  parts  of  sentances,  but  which 
fOrms  no  part  of  any  proposition. 

297.  The  connectives  mayr  be  divided  into 
conjunctions  proper,  whose  sole  use  is  to  connect, 
and  conjunctives,  which  connect  and  at  the  same 
time  express  some  other  relation.  They  are,  the 
conjunctive  adverbs,  conjunctive  or  relative  pronouns, 
and  phrases  used  as  connectives. 

298.  The  conjunctions  are : — And,  although, 
as,  or,  nor,  yet,  but,  either,  neither,  than,  that,  because, 
since,  though,  although,  except,  whether,  lest,  unless. 

299.  The  conjunctive  adverbs  are: — 
After,  before,  ere,  even,  since,  how,  till,  until,  ivherc, 
while,  whilst,  ivhencver,  no  sooner,  as  soon  as,  as  far 
as,  ^c,  the  more — the  better;  the  more — the  less,  &c. 

300.  The  conjunctive  pronouns  are  who, 
which,  what,  that,  and  as  after  many,  such,  and 
same. 


CLASSES   OF   CONJUNCTIONS.  .127 

301.  Conjunctive  phrases  are,  as  far  as, 
as  much  as,  £c,  and  that  too,  for  else,  for  otherwise, 
but  yet,  'but  that,  £c. 

CLASSES    OF    CONJUNCTIONS    AND    OTHER    CONNECTIVES. 

302.  Conjunctive  words  are  used  to  connect 
sentences. 

303.  The  sentences  thus  united  arc  simply  con- 
nectod,  and  are  independent  ot  each  other  ;  or  one 
constitutes  part  of  the  other. 

1.  The  first  method  is  called  co-ordination,  and 
the  conjunctives  employed  are  co-ontinates. 

"2.   The  second  is  called  subordination  and  the 
conjunctives  employed  are  subordinates. 

304.  Co-ordinate  conjunctives  are  divided  into 
copulative,  adversative,  and  caused  conjunctives. 

I.  Copulative  conjunctives  unite  sentences 
and  enlarge  the  thought  by  external  additions  ; 
as,  "Johns  reads  and  writes,"  that  is  "  John  reads 
and  John  writes." 


1.  Tlrcy  are,  first,  and  which  is  the  simple    copulative. 

2.  Those  that  consist  of  two  parts,  correlative  and  rela- 
tive ;  as,  both,  and,  as  well — as,  not  only- — but  aho. 
The  first  calls  the  attention  of  the  mind  to  that  which  in 
to  follow  in  connection  with  the  second;  as  "He  is  both 
poor  «h<7. wretched."      "  He  is  not  only  rich,  but  he  is  also 

•generous." 

3.  The  principal  conjunction  oTten  has  another  united 
with  it;  as,  and  besides,  and  lUcewise,  and  moreover, 

4.  Frequently  the  principal  conjunction  is  not  express- 
ed and  these  words  take  its  place  ;  as,  "  You  have  done 
Wrong,  beside*  you  promised  to  do  better."  "The  poor 
man  is  sidk,  his  children  are  likewise  ill." 

5.  Copulatives  with   an    intensive  sense  j   aho,  but  aho. 
6.    Ordinativc    conjunctives;  first,  secondly,   thirdly, 

again,  then,  finally,  lastly.     These  connect   the  different 
sentences,  paragraphs,  or  divisions  of  a  discourse. 


128  ETYMOLOGY. 

II.  Adversative  conjunctives  connect  sen- 
tences where  the  last  member  expresses  some  con- 
tradiction or  exception  to  what  is  asserted  in  tho 
first ;  as,  "He  came  but  he  went  away." 

1 .  They  arc,  first,  but  which  is   the  simple  adversative. 

2.  Correlatives  expressing  antithesis  or  opposition  ;  not — 
but,  on  the  one  hand — on  the  other,  on  the  contrary ;  now- 
then;  as,  "  He  is  not  wise,  but  he  is  foolish."  It  is  not  day, 
but  it  is  niG\ht." 

3.  Those  that  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  preceding 
proposition ;  as,  but,  yet,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding, 
Jwwevcr,  still,  only.  "  The  ostrich  is  a  Bird,  but  it  cannot 
fly."     "He  is  rich  but  he  is  not  liberal." 

4.  Disjunctives ;  or,  either — or,  lohethfr — or,  else, 
neither — nor. 

5.  These  may  be  called  alternatives.  "John  or 
James  will  come,"  means  one  or  the  other  will  come. 
When  tho  alternation  is  more  emphatic,  either — or  is  used. 
In  poetry  or — or  is  frequently  employed. 

Neither — nor  expresses  negatively  what  is  expressed  by 
either — or  affirmatively. 

III.  Causal  conjunctives  express  a  reason,  ef- 
fect, or  consequence.  They  are  for,  therefore,  ioherc<° 
fore,  thereupon,  hereupcm,  hence,  accordinmbj ,  conse- 
quently',  and  so,  of  course,  ■whereas,  since,  inasmuch  as* 

SO;",    SUBORDINATE   CONJUNCTIVES. 

1.  First,  those  which  merely  introduce  the  sub- 
ordinate proposition;  that,  whether,  and  if,  i» 
sentences  like  these.  u  I  knew  that  he  had  come." 
"I  do  not  know  whether  he  has  come."  <;  I  asked 
if  he  was  dead." 

2.  Relatives,  or  conjunctive  pronouns,  ioho,which, 
that,  what. 

3.  Conjunctive  adverbs  of  place;  as,  where, 
whither,  whence,  ivhercrcr,    . 


,  CLASSES    OF   CONJUNCTIONS.  129 

4.  Conjunctive  adverbs  of  time:  when,  while,  $c. 

5.  Conjunctives  expressing  manner;  as,  as  if,  so 
that. 

6.  Subordinate  causal  conjunctions. 

(1)  Those  that  express  the  actual  cause;  because,  since, 
whereas.   "The  stars  seem  small,  became  they  are  distant." 

(2)  The  possible  cause  or  condition:  if , provided  that, 
providing  that,  in  case  that,  provided,  unless,  except.  "  I 
will  go  if  it  does  not  rain."  "  I  will  not  let  thee  go  except 
thou  bless  me." 

($$)  Adversative  cause  or  concession  :  Though,  although. 
"  Though  the  Lord  be  high  yet  hath  he.  respect  unto  the 
lowly." 

(4)  The  final  cause  cr  the  purpose:  that,  lest.  "He 
studies  that  he  may  learn." 

7.  Conjunctives  that  denote  intensity,  compar- 
ison, effect;  than,  the,  so,  that,  &c.  "  lie  is  as  rich  as 
liis  brother, "'  "lie  is  wiser  fian his  master."  "  The 

« 

more,  the  better."  "He  speaks  so  loud  (hat  he  may 
be  heard  in  the  street." 

Conjunctive  words  are  found  in  several  of  these 
classes  according  as  their  shades  of  meaning  differ. 

This  division  of  conjunctive  .words,  is  more  complica- 
ted than  that  usually  given,  but  it  is  the  only  way  by  which 
their  use  and  force  in  the  sentence  can  be  adequately 
shown. 

EXERCISES, 
Model.     jLnd  is  a  conjunction,  it  connects   "  The  sun 
Bhines,"  and  "  The  air  is  mild '"  by  Rule  XIX. 

Point  out  the  different  classes  of  connectives. 

The  sun  shines  and  the  air  is  mild.  Wise  men 
die,  likewise  the  fool  and  the  brutish  person  perish. 
lie  was  there  as  well  as  the  others.  He  not 
only  threatened  him  but  also  struck  him.  The 
duty  of  the  historian  is  twofold;  first,  towards 
himself,  then,  towards  his  reader.     Vice  stings  us 


130  ETYMOLOGY. 

even  in  our  pleasures,  but  virtue  consoles  us  even 
in  our  pains.  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface  but 
pearls  lie  at  the  bottom.  He  is  rich  yet  he  is  not 
liberal.  It  is  my  brother  or  my  sister.  I  have 
none  ;  else  I  would  give  it.  I  neither  knew  where 
I  was,  what ,  I  was,  nor  from  whence  I  came. 
Praise  the  Lord  for  he  is  good.  Man  is  a  creature 
therefore  he  is  mortal.  Where  thou  lodgest  I  will 
lodge.  When  you  have  nothing  to  say,  say  noth- 
ing. As  we  were  walking  we  met  a  stranger.  He 
looks  as  if  he  was  sick.  As  the  hart  panteth  after 
the  water  brooks  so  panteth  my  soul  after  thee. 


CHAPTER  XX. 


INTERJECTIONS. 


308.  Interjections  are  exclamatory  words 
thrown  between  propositions  to  express  emotions 
or  to  call  attention. 

They  are  not  members  nor  modifiers  of  propo- 
sitions and  do  not  connect  them. 

307.  They  are  of  two  jpiids,  those  expressing 
purely  natural  feeling,  cries  of  pain,  anger,  sorrow, 
or  imitations  of  natural  sounds,  and  those  which 
are  words  used  in  a  peculiar  sense,  as  hark! 
behold !  &e. 

The  oldest  interjections  are  involuntary  natural 
sounds ;  as,  0 !  Oh !  Ah  !  Pish!  Heigh  ho  !  Ha  ha  ! 

308.  Others  are  imitations  of  natural  sounds. 
(1.)  Those  addressed  to  animals;   as  to  sheep, 

hian  hnan  ;  to  poultry  shoo  ;  to  cows  koh  Jcoh. 


DERIVATION.  131 

(2)  Imitations  of  animals;    as,  moo,  boiv  wow, 
peep  peep,  quack. 

(3)  Imitations  of  objects  as,  ding  along,  tick  tack, 
rat  a  tat. 

309.  The  second  class  of  interjections  are  abrupt 
imperative  propositions;  as,  behold,  lo,  hark,  see, 
help,  silence,  peace,  courage  ;  and  other  words  used 
abruptly  by  ellipsis;  as,  horrid!  murder!  fire! 
water!  §c.    ' 

EXERCISES. 

All!  woe  is  me.  Hark!  some  one  comes. 
Indeed  !  has  he  started.  What  ho !  Stranger, 
whence  come  vou?  See  !  it  rends  the* rocks  asun- 
der!  Alas!  he  cried,  the  fault  is  mine.  Hush! 
he  is  at  the  door.     What !  are  you  mad? 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

DERIVATION. 

310.  D  e  ri  v  a  ti  o  n  is  an  essential  part  of  Ety- 
mology. It  is  the  tracing  of  words  to  their  origin, 
and  the  explanation  of  the  changes  they  undergo. 

The  historical  origin  of  our  language  has  been  shown 
in  the  introduction. 

311.  All  words  are  derived  from  forms  which 
are  called  roots.  For  example,  bindy  bound,  band, 
bundle,  all  have  a  common  element  b-nd  which  is 
the  root. 

In    the   Indo-European    languages — to    which 
class  ours  belongs — there  are  two  classes  of  roots. 


132  ETYMOLOGY. 

312.  From  the  first,  and  by  far  the  largest  class, 
spring  verbs,  and  nouns  that  stand  in  a  brotherly 
relation  to  the  verbs,  not  derived  from  them,  but 
springing  from  the  same  source  with  them;  They 
are  called  for  distinction  verbal  roots. 

313.  From  the  second  class,  spring  the  Pro- 
nouns, and  all  primitive  jwepositmiSj  conjunctions, 
and  partides. 

From  them  are  also  derived  the 'personal  endings  of 
verbs,  and  the  case  endings  of  nouns. 

314.  We  call  them  pi-onominal  roots  because  they  all 
express  a  pronominal  relation,  which  in  the  conjunctions, 
prepositions,  and  particles  lies  somewhat  concealed. 

315.  Pronominal  roots  belong  to  the  class  of  instinctive 
natural  elements,  and  are  among  the  oldest  forms  in  lan- 
guage. 

316.  Verbal  roots  express  ideas  of  substance, 
activity,  being,  and  their  attributes;  while  pro- 
nominal roots  express  relations,  direction,  place. 

317.  Nouns,  adjectives  and  verbs,  consist  of 
verbal  roots  combined  with  pronominal  roots  ex- 
pressing their  relations. 

Verbal  roots  are  the  bony  framework  of  language; 
pronominal  roots,  the  sinews  which  clothe  them,  and  make 
them  living,  speaking  forms. 

318.  In  most  languages  this  fact  is  not  at  once  apparent, 
since  in  the  wear  of  words  they  have  been  deprived  of 
their  forms.  They  are  like  coins  which  still  preserve  their 
value,  though  their  inscriptions  have  long  since  disap- 
peared. 

318.  Our  language  consists  of  the  following 
elements. 

I.  Pronominal  roots,  including  all  instinctive  forms. 

II.  Verbal  roots,  including  stem  nouns,  stem  verbs,  and 
stem  adjectives. 

III.  Reduplicate  forms,  like  chit,  chat,  ding,  dong. 


LIST   or   SUFFIXES.  133 

IV.  Primary  derivatives,   chatter,  whiten,   wisely,  free- 
dom. 

V.  Secondary  derivatives,  fearfully,  tiresomeness. 

VI.  Words  with  prefixes,  arise,  for-bid. 

VII.  Compounds,   as  horse-man,  rats-bane,  sweet-heart. 

VIII.  Disguised   derivatives  and  compounds,  as  daisy 
(day's  eye.) 

I.    PRONOMINAL    ELEMENTS. 

319.  These  include  the  instinctive  or  natural 
elements,  like  0 !  ah!  oh!  £c. 

1.  The  element  cf  the  first  singular  subject  is  /from 
Saxon  1c. 

2.  That  of  the  first  singular  object  is  m  in  me,  my,  mine. 

3.  IF,  for  Saxon  u,  the  element  of  the  first  plural,  is 
found  in  we,  our,  (ure,)  ours,  us. 

4.  Th,  the  element  of  the  second  singular  is  found  in 
thou,  thy,  thine,  thee. 

5.  Y,  the  plural  element  of  the  second  singular  is  found 
in  ye,  you,  your,  yours. 

0.  II,  the  element  of  the  third  person,  and  nearer 
demonstrative,  is -found  in  he,  his,  him,  her,  hers,  it  (for  hit) 
its,  hence,  here,  hither,  <Scc. 

7.  Th,  the  remote  demonstrative  is  found  in  that,  those, 
this,  these,  the, whence,  there,  thiher,  then,  than,  thus,  they, 
their,  them.  Perhaps  allied  with  the  2d  personal  element. 
This  and  these  are  now  nearer  demonstratives. 

8.  S,  another  form  of  this  appears  in  she,  so,  some,  also, 
as,  such. 

9.  W/j,  the  interrogative  element,  appears  in  who, which. 
wha\  ivhcre,  when,  whence,  whither,  whether,  whose,  whom, 
why,  hoio. 

II.  VERBAL  ROOTS. 

320.  We  cannot  in  our  limits  classify  the  verbal 
roots.  i 

They  are  the  products  of  the  thinking  mind,  and, 
However  far  back  we  may  trace  them,  they  still 

12 


134  ETYMOLOGY. 

bear  its  impress.  Indeed,  most  words  have  lost 
more  or  less  of  their  primary  meaning. 

821.  Our  primitive  verbal  words  all  have  refer- 
ence to  the  external  world,  to  ideas  of  motion  and 
substance. 

322.  But  as  languages  grow  old,  they  need 
words  to  express  objects  of  reflection,  memory, 
and  abstract  conception.  Instead  of  coining  new 
words  or  roots,  the  old  are  used  in  a  new  and 
abstract  sense.  Thus  spirit  means  breath  or  ivind  ; 
conscience,  is  a  knoiving  together ;  in  Saxon  inurit, 
inner-knowledge;  emotion  is  a  moving ;  reflection, 
a  turning  back ;  rectitude^  righteousness,  a  strait- 
ness ;  language,  a  tongue;  poetry,  a  creating,  £c. 

323.  Thus  the  word,  which  was  first  the  picture  of  an 
object,  or  an  action,  becomes  the  picture,  so  to  speak,  of  a 
thought. 

324.  As  an  illustration  of  the  origin  of  words  take  the 
names  of  animals  which  may  be  traced  to  some  active 
quality  that  they  possess. 

Man  is  connected  with  a  root  which  means  to  think, 
and  to  remember;  sloth  means  the  slow  one ;# the  hare,  the 
leaper;  the  wolf]  the  one  who  teares  in  pieces;  Jphe  dog, 
the  swift;  crab,  the  creeper;  cow,  the  slow  marcher;  ox, 
the  producer;  mouse,  the  thief. 

*  325.  The  primary  verbal  roots  in  English  are  about 
1000  in  number. 

326,  In  order  to  distinguish  them  we  must  be  able  to 
separate  them  from  the  prefixes,  and  ■suffixes  which  envelop 
them.  For  instance  i  is  the  root  in  trans-i-torines ;  die  in 
dedicate. 

327.  When  roots  receive  additions,  they  are  often 
modified  to  preserve  the  balance  of  phonetic  weight;  as 
in  Latin  inimicus  is  compounded  of  in  and  am  'cus,  when 
a  beconies  i  to  lighten  the  weight  of  the  syllables. 

328.  On  the  other  hand  syllables  are  sometimes  strength- 
ened to  preserve  them  from  loss;  as  in  the  root  frag,  in* 
fragile,  frangible,  fracture,  infringe. 


LIST   OP   SUFFIXES.  135 

329.  Many,  of  the  forms  of  words  arise  from  these 
efforts  at  compensation,  and  have  been  produced  so  long 
ago,  that,  the  means  has  been  lost  sight  of;  as,  man,  men, 
sing,  sang,  and  the  strong  forms  generally. 

III.    REDUPLICATE   FORMS. 

330.  The  most  simple  change  to  which  words 
are  suhject,  is  reduplication,  as  in  sing  song,  chit 
chat,  ding  dong,  sec  saw,  slip  slop,  click  clack,  handy 
dandy,  harry  skurry,  hurly  burly.  These  are  not 
compounds,  but  natural  formations.  They  are 
found  in  many  languages. 

IV.    PRIMARY   DERIVATIVES. 

331.  The  next  step  in  derivation  is  to  place  a 
syllable  after  the  root.  This  syllable  is  called  a 
suffix. 

LIST  OF   THE    PRINCIPAL   SUFFIXES. 

1.  8,  es,  more  than  one ;  boys,  more  than  one  boy:  also 
does;   walk*,  docs  walk. 

2.  Er,  more;  brighter,  more  bright. 

3.  Est,  most;  brightest,  most  bright:  'dost;  walked, 
dost  walk. 

4.  Ed,  did;  walked,  did  walk :  possessed  of ;  winged, 
stringed,  &c. 

5.  Ing,  continuing  to;  walk/wa,  continuing  to  walk. 

6.  Ate,  en,  ize,  to  make,  to  do  ;  harden,  to  make  hard; 
actuate,  to  make  or  cause  to  act;  civih'ze,  to  make  civil. 

7.  Ar,  er,  or,  an,  ian,  yer,  eer,  ees,  one  who ;  beggar, 
one  who  begs;  execute/-,  one  who  executes;  sawyer,  one 
who  saws,  &c. 

8.  Ess,  inc,  ix,  a  female;  lioness,  a  female  lion. 

9.  Ness,  ty,  ity,  dom,  hood,  ship,  state;  condition, power, 
&c;  hardness,  state  of  being  hard ;  kingdom,  power,  or 
country  of  a  king. 

10.  Ion,  ment,  the  Oct  of;  Agitation,  the  act  of  agitating. 

11.  Al,  ic,  an,  ian,  ar,  ary  pertaining  to;  heroic  pertain* 
iny  to  a  hero, 


136  ETYMOLOGY. 

12.  Ous,  ful,  y,  full  of;  perilous,  full  of  peril ;  hopeful, 
full  of  hope. 

13.  Able,  ible,  that  may  be;  eatable,  that  may  be  eaten. 

14.  Ly,  in  a  manner;  kind/y,  in  a  kind  manner. 

15.  Less,  without;  penniless,  without  a  penny. 

16.  Ish,  some,  somewhat;  sweet/s/t,  somewhat  sweet. 

17.  Y,  ry,  ery,  the  art  or  practice  of;  coquetry,  the  art 
of&  coquette. 

18.  Ward,  towards;  northward,  towards  the  north. 

19.  Ive,  ory,  tending  to;  instructive,  tending  to  instruct. 

20.  Let,  et,  ule,  cule,  alittle;  hrooklet,  a  little  brook. 
There  are  many  others  which  we  have  not  room  to  give. 

Analyze  these  derivatives  and  give  the  meanings  of  the 
suffixes. 

Horses.  Strikes.  Sweeter.  Player.  Highest. 
Singest.  Readest.  Walked.  Winged.  Plumed. 
"Writing.  Whiten.  Soften.  Graduate.  Christian- 
ize. Passer.  Sailor.  Baroness.  Heroine.  Sweet- 
ness. Oddity.  Hardship.  Knighthood.  Action. 
Statement.  Baronial.  Dangerous.  Destructible. 
Manly.  Blackish.  Houseless.  Globule.  Formal. 
Talkative.  Darksome. 

Y.    SECONDARY   DERIVATIVES. 

332.  Secondary  derivatives   are   those  formed 
from  other  derivatives;  as  tire-somc-ness,  man-ful-ly. 

VI.    DERIVATIVES   WITH    PREFIXES. 

333.  A  prefixis  a  syllable  placed  before  a  word ; 
as  6e-hind,  a-rise,  con-duct. 

LIST  OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  PREFIXES.    ! 

I.    ENGLISH    OR    SAXON. 

1.  A,  on,  in,  to,  at,  ashore,  on  shore;  afoot,  on  foot. 

2.  Be,  upon,  over,  by,  near,  &c. ;  iedew,  besprinkle,  Re- 
side, iehindj  &c. 


LIST   OF    PREFIXES.  137 

3.  For,  from  or  against;  forbid,  /orb  ear. 

4.  Fore,  before;  foresee,  foretell* 

5.  Mis,  wrong;  misconduct,  misrule. 

6.  Out,  beyond,  more;  outrun,  outlive,  outside. 

7.  Over,  above,  beyond;  overdo,  overcome,  overtop. 

8.  Un,  not;  wtcertain,  w/ibind;  privation  or  removal; 
unmask. 

9.  Under,  beneath,  mferior;  underlay,  undermine, 

10.  Up,  elevation,  on  high;  uplift. 

11.  With,  against,  from;  withstand,  withhold. 

II.    LATIN. 

1.  A,  ab,  or  abs,  from;  avert,  ta  turn  from;  abstract, 
to  draw  from. 

2.  Ad,  a,  ac,  af,  ag,  al,  an,  ap,  ar,  as,  or  at,  at  or  to ; 
adhere,  to  cling  to;  a/fiix,  to  fix  to.  Other  examples — 
accede,  aggrandize,  aZlot,  annex,  appeal,  &c. 

3.  Ante,  before;  antecedent,  going  before. 

4.  Circum,  around;  circumnavigate,  to  sail  around. 

5.  Con,  with  or  together;  in  composition,  co,  eog,  col, 
com,  cor.  Examples:  composition,  placing  together ;  cor- 
relative, relating  together. 

6.  Contra,  counter,  against;  contradict,  to  speak  against. 
,.  De,  down,  from;  adduce,  draw  from;  debase,  to  bring 

down. 

8.  Dis,  di,  dif,  apart,  not,  to  deprive  of;  disunion,  sep- 
aration. 

9.  E  or  ex,  out  of,  from ;  eject,  to  cast  out ;  evade,  to 
escape  from. 

10.  Extra,  beyond,  more  than;  extraordinary,  more  than 
ordinary. 

11."  In,  im,  il,  ig,  ir,  before  adjectives  not;  inactive,  not 
active  ;  before  verbs  in,  into,  to  make;  insext  to  place  in  ; 
imbrown  to  make  brown. 

12.  Inter,  between,  among  ;   intervene,  to  come  among. 

13.  Ob,  oc,  of,  op,  before,  against,  in  the  way  ;  occluse, 
closed  against. 

14.  Per,  through  ;  pervade,  go  through  ;  by,  perchance, 
by  chance. 

15.  Pre,  before  ;  precede,  go  before;  prejudge,  judgo 
before. 

16.  Pro,  for,  forth,  forward ;  pronoun  for  a  noun  ;  pro- 
yoke,  call  forth, 


138  etymology. 

17.  Rej    again,  back ;  recall,  call   back;  reenter,  enter 
again. 

18.  Sub,  sue,  suf,  sug,  sup,  sus,  under,  from;  subscribe, 
write  under. 

19.  Super,  above,  over;  superscribe,  write  over. 

20.  Trans,  across,  over,  beyond;  transfer,  carry  over. 

III.   GREEK. 

1.  A,  an,   without;    atheist,  without  a  God;  anarchy, 
without  government. 

2.  Anti,  against ;  antirj&ihy,  feeling  against. 

3.  Apo,  ap,  from;  aphelion,  from  the  sun. 

4.  Dia,  through;  fft'ameter,  measure  through. 

5.  Hemi,  and  Semi,  half;  Aemisphere.  half  a  sphere. 

6.  Hyper,  over  ;  hyi^er  critical,  over  critical. 

7.  Mono,  alone,  single;  monosyllable,  one -syllable. 

S.  Poly,  many  ;  ^o/ysyllable,  a  word  of  many  syllables. 

9.  Peri,  around  ;  ^m'meter,  measure  around. 

10.  Syn,  sy,  syl,  sym,  together  with ;  sympathy,  feeling 
with. 


EXERCISES   EUR  ANALYSIS. 

Abed.  Ashore.  Behind.  Forbid.  Foreknow. 
Misguide.  Outshoot.  Overleap.  Unkind.  Unhinge. 
Undertake.  Upraise.  Withhold.  Abscond.  Ad- 
judge. Antedate.  Circumscribe.  Conjugate. 
Compact.  Counteract.  Design.  Dismiss.  Divide. 
Expunge.  Enact.  Immature.  Interdict.  Obtrude. 
Permit.  Prewarn.  Provide.  Eeturn.  Submit.  Su- 
pervene. Transmarine.  Antimason.  Anteroom^ 
Diagram.  Semicircle. 

VII.    COMPOUND  WORDS* 

334.-  Compound  words  consist  of  two  words, 
expressing  of  themselves  distinct  ideas,  united  to- 
gether so  as  to  express  but  ouev 


COMPOUND   WORDS.  139 

835.  Derivation  gives  us  different  forms  of  ideas;  as 
from  write  we  have  writes^  writer,  writing,  written  ;  while 
composition  gives  us  varieties  of  the  same  ideas;  as  steam- 
boat, horseboat,  sailboat. 

336.  Composition  distinguishes  the  single  thing  from 
the  class  as  key  marks  all  keys,  but  doorkcy,  housckey, 
watchkey,  mark  the  varieties  of  keys. 

337.  Composition  is  distinguished  from  syntactical  mod- 
ification of  words  by  the  change  of  accent.  Compare  "  a 
red  house  "  where  there  is  an  accent  both  upon  red  and 
house,  and  il  a  mad  house  "  whero  the  accent  is  upon  mad. 
The  two  words,  in  compounds,  become  one  in  respect  to 
accent. 

338.  This  is  one  of  the  principal  tests  of  composition. 
Latham  lays  down  the  principle  as  of  almost  universal  ap- 
plication, that  there  is  no  composition  without  a  change  oi 
form,  or  a  change  of  accent. 

339.  Compounds  consist  of  two  parts,  one  of  which  may 
itself  sometimes  be  compound ;  as,  midsMp-jf^o.. 

1.  The  first  is  the  most  important  term  and  receives  the 
accent.  It  limits  the  second  and  gives  the  ruling  idea  to 
the  word.  For  example : — steamboat,  horse-boat,  huntsman, 
ploughman,  bakehouse,  brewhouse,  seaman,  landsman. 

2.  In  a  few  cases  like  God-man,  deaf-mute,  where  the 
accent  is  heard  on  both  words,  the  inflection  shows  that 
they  are  compound;  as,  Grodman's,  deafmute's. 

340.  A  few  compounds  are  disguised,  as  atonement,  for 
atone  ment;  dais?/,  from  Saxon  daeges  cage,  day's  eye; 
not,  from  ne-aught. 


no 


SYNTAX. 


PAET    FOURTH. 


syntax; 

CHAPTER  XXII, 
SECTION  I.  PROPOSITIONS. 

342.  Syntax  treats  of  the  arrangement  and 
construction  of  words  in  propositions  and  senten* 
ces. 

341.  Language  consists  of-  propositions, 
singular  or  united,  and  modified  in  various  ways. 

34$.  Propositions  may  be  declarative, in- 
terrogative, imperative,  and  exclamatory, 

344.  A  perfect  proposition  consists  of  two  parts, 
subject  and  predicate. 

345.  The  subject  and  predicate  maybe 
simple  or  compound,  grammatical  or  logical. 

846.  The  simple  subject  or  predicate  consists  of 
but  ono  word  or  clause  ;  as,  John  runs  ;  To  lie  is 
base. 

347.  The  compound  subject  or  predicate  con- 
sists of  two  -or  more  simple  subjects  or  predicates 
united;  as,  "  John  andJa)nes have  come."  "Mary 
sings  and  plays." 

348.  The  grammatical  subject  or  predicate  is  the 
same  as  the  simple  ;  as,  John  runs, 


SENTENCES,    CLAUSES,    AND    PHRASES.  141 

849.  The  logical  subject  or  predicate  is  the 
grammatical,  with  its  various  modifiers  ;  as  "  The 
loud  winds  roar  through  the  forests."  The  loud 
winds  is  the  logical  subject;  roar  through  the  forests 
is  the  logical  predicate. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  classes  of  propositions  and  the 
forms  of  the  subject  and  predicate. 

God  is  the  maker  of  all  things.  How  beautiful  are  the 
starry  heavens!  What  power  spread  them  like  a  curtain 
over  us?  The  earth,  the  air,  the  water,  ail  things,  answer 
God.  Though  the  world  oppose  me  I  shall  not  falter.  If 
it  rains  I  shall  not  go. 

SECTION  II.    SENTENCES,  CLASSES,  AND 
PHRASES. 

350.  A  sentence  consist  of  one  or  more 
propositions. 

1.  A  simple  sentence  contains  but  one  prop- 
osition. 

2.  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or 
more. 

3.  The  propositions  contained  in  it  are  called 
mernbers. 

351.  The  Clause  is  a  proposition,  or  a  cob 
lection  of  words,  introducing  some  new  fact,  and 
whicb  is  dependent  upon  some  other  word  in 
the  sentence;  as,  "The  tree,  which  you  planted, 
was  a  maple,"  Which  you  planted  is  a  clause  depen- 
dent upon  and  modifying  tree. 

352.  A  Phrase  is  a  short  expression  which 
taken  word  by  word  has  no  connection   with  the 


142  SYNTAX. 

rest  of  the  sentence,  but  which  taken  together 
expresses  a  single  idea  ;  as,  in  vain,  equal  to  vain- 
ly, in  short,  in  fine,  to  be  sure,  &c. 

353.  Clauses  may  form  parts  of  propositions  or 
may  be  used  as  modifiers  of  those -parts. 

354.  They  may  be  divided  into  substantive,  ad» 
jective,  relative,    adverbial,  and  conditional  clauses. 

1.  A  Substantive  clause  is  one  that  performs  the 
office  of  a  noun  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case;  as,  *-f 
do  not  know  whether  he  came."  "Whether  he  came"  is 
the  object  of  know, 

2.  A  Relative  clause  is"  one  introduced  by  a  relative 
pronoun.  m 

3.  An  Adjective  clause  is  one  introduced  by  an  adjec- 
tive or  participle;  "  James,  eager  to  team,  applied  himself 
to  study."  "  Tempted  by  pleasure,  he  forgot  the  lessona 
of  his  youth." 

4.  An  Adverbial  clause  is  one  that  performs  the 
office  of  an  adverb;  as,  "  Where  thou  lodgest,  I  will  lodge." 

5.  A  Conditional  clause  is  one  that  expresses  a  con- 
dition ;  as,  "  If  he  comes  to  morrow,  I  will  return." 

6.  There  is  also  the  Absolute  clause  which  forms  no 
part  of  the  proposition.  It  consists  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
joined  with  a  participle;  as,  The  sun  having  risen,  the 
clouds  disappeared. 

355.  These  first  clauses  may  be  reduced  to  three, 
Substantive,  Adjective,  and  Adverbial,  uniting 
the  relative  with  the  adjective;  and  the  conditional  with 
the  adverbial  clauses. 

EXERCISES. 

Point  out  the  clauses,  and  phrases ;  and  analyze 
and  parse  the  sentences. 

Some,  presuming  on  the  good  nature  of  their  friends, 
write  their  letters  in  a  hasty  and  unconnected  manner.  In 
short,  if  a  man  prefers  a  life  of  industry,  it  is  because  he 
has  an  idea  of  comfort..  The  measure  is  so  exceptionable 
that  we  can  by  no  means  permit  it.  The  youth  fond  of 
play,  neglects  his  studies.     Pleased  with  thjp  sight  he  re- 


THE   RULES   OP   SYNTAX.  143 

turned  homewards.    When  the  day  dawns,  the  clouds  will 
disappear.  Having  learned  his  lesson,  he  went  out  to  walk. 

Complete  the  sentences  containing  these  clauses : — 

Who  arc  fairly  entitled.  Who  rendered  himself  useful. 
Who  neglected  their  studies.  When  the  retreat  com- 
menced. While  yet  young.  Where  you  go.  That  he 
might  be  instructed.  That  time  is  short.  Having  arrived 
at  the  city. 

Write  other  sentences  containing  the  different  clauses. 


CHAPTER  XXIII.     • 

THE  RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 

356.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  principal  rules 
of  syntax  are  brought  together  here. 

Exceptions  will  be  given  in  the  next  chapter. 

Rule  I.  The  subject  of  the  finite  verb  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case.. 

Rule  II.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject 
in  number  and  person. 

Rule  III.  The  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  predicate 
agrees  with  the  sbject  in  case. 

Rule  IV.  A  noun  or' pronoun,  limiting  an- 
other noun  or  pronoun,  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  case. 

Rule  V.  A  noun  or  pronoun  limiting  another 
noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing,  is  put 
in  the  possessive  case. 

Rule  VI.  Adjectives  modify  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. 

Rule  VII.  The  indefinite  article  limits  nouns  in 
the  singular  number  only. 


144  SYNTAX. 

Rule  VIII.  The  definite  article  limits  nouns 
in  the  singular  or  plural  number. 

Rule  IX.  Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents 
in  gender,  number,  and  person. 

Rule  X.  The  direct  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
is  put  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  XL  Verbs  of  asking  and  teaching  are  fol- 
lowed by  two  objective  cases,  one  of  the  person, 
and  the  other  of  the  thing. 

Rule  XII.  Verbs  of  giving,  granting,  allowing,  &c, 
are  followed  by  two  objects  ;  the  direct  andindirect 
in  the  objective  case. 

Or  better,  Verbs  of  giving,  granting,  allowing,  &c, 
are  followed  by  the  objective  of  the  direct  object, 
and  the  dative  of  the  indirect  object. 

Rule  XIII.  Verbs  of 'making,  choosing,  rendering, 
and  constituting  are  followed  by  two  objectives; 
the  one  of  the  person,  and  the  other  of  the  effect 
produced. 

Rule  XIV.  Nouns  denoting  duration  of  timet 
distance,  weight,  measure,  and  price,  are  put  in  the 
objective  case. 

Rule  XV.  The  words  like,  unlike,  near,  and  nigh 
are  followed  by  the  objective  case.  [Or  better,  by 
the  dative,  as  that  was  their  former  power.] 

Rule  XVI.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives, 
and  other  adverbs. 

Rule  XVII.  Prepositions  connect  words  and 
and  show  the  relation  between  them. 

Rule  XVIII.  The  object  of  the  preposition  is 
put,in  the  objective-  case. 

Rule  XIX.  Conjunctions  connect  sentences,  and 
parts  of  sentences. 


STRUCTURE    OF    PROPOSITIONS.  145 

Rule  XX.  The  interjections  0!  oh!  ah!  are 
followed  by  the  objective  case  of  the  first  person. 

Interjeetions  are  generally  followed  by  the  voc- 
ative of  the  second  person. 

Rule  XXI.  The  infinitive  depends  upon  verbs, 
adjectives,  and  nouns, 

Rule*£X[L  The  simple  infinitive  without  to  is 
used  after  bid,  do,  feci,  have,  hear,  lei,  make,  need, 
see,  and  also  after  may,  can,  will,  shall,  and  must  in 
the  compound  tenses. 

Rule  XXIII.  The  infinitive  has  sometimes  a 
subject  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  XXIV.  Participles  referto  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. 

Rule  XXV.  Verbal  nouns  are  followed  by  the 
same  cases  as  the  verbs  from  which  they  are  de. 
rived. 

Rule  XXVI.  A  noun  or  pronoun  joined  with  a 
participle  having  no  dependence  upon  other  words 
is  put  in  the  nominative  case  absolute. 

Rule  XXVII.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing 
addressed  is  put  in  the  vocative. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

STRUCTURE  OF    PROPOSITIONS  AND    SENTENCES. 

357.  All  sentences  consist  of  only  three  kinds  of 
combinations;  the  P  r  e  d  i  ca  t  i  ve,  the  Attri- 
butive, and  the  Objective. 

358.  The  Predicative    combination  is  the 
simple  proposition". 

13 


146  SYNTAX. 

359.  Any  word  or  clause  added  to  a  noun  or 
word  standing  for  a  noun  is  an  attribute,  and  the 
combination  is  an  a  1 1  r  i  b  u  t  i  v  e  c  o  m  b  i  n  a  t  i  o  n ; 
as,  the  wise  king ;  that  man  ;  Cicero  the  orator. 

360.  Any  word  or  clause  added  to  a  verb  or  ad- 
jective is  an  objective  modifier  and  the  combination 
is  an    objective   combination;   as,  "  God 
made  man."  ■  '• 

SECTION  I.  THE  PREDICATIVE   COMBINATION. 

361.  The  predicative  combination  is 
the  simple  proposition.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  sub- 
ject and  predicate,  which  taken  together  express 
one  thought,  a  judgment  or  affirmation  ;  as,  John 
runs.      Water  flows. 

362.  The  s  u  bj  e  c  t  may  be  a  noun,  a  pronoun, 
an  adjective  used  as  a  tioun,  an  infinitive,  a 
clause,  or  a  word  used  merely  as  such  ;  as,  "  John 
reads."  "  He  is  studious."  "  The  good  are  hap- 
py." "  Playing  in  the  fields  is  pleasant."  "  lo 
lie  is  base."  "  That  all  must  die  is  certain."  "  A 
is  an  article."     "  Sweet  is  an  adjective." 

363.  The  predicate  may  be  of  various 
forms. 

I.  First,  the  simple  verb;  as,  "John  runs." 
"The  wind  blows." 

1.  Here  the  connection  between  subject  and 
predicate  is  perfectly  evident. 

2.  When  I  say  "John  running,"  the  exact  rela- 
tion is  uncertain,  but  when  Ijnsert  is  the  relation 
is  certain. 

3.  The  verb  is,  is  called  a  copula.  It  serves  to 
connect  the  assertion  with  the  subject.  In  "John  is 


THE    PREDIDATIVE   COMBINATION.  147 

running,  "  the   predicate   is  the  imperfect  parti- 
ciple. • 

II.  Second,  the  predicate  is  an  adj  e  c  t  i  v  e  ;  as? 
"The  sun  is  bright."  The  adjective  is  closely  re- 
lated to  the  verb  and  is  intermediate  between  the 
verb  and  noun  ;  and  is  thus  fiitted  to  form  the 
predicate.* 

III.  Third,  the  predicate  is  a  noun;  as,  "James 
is  a  painter." 

IV '.  Fourth,  the  predicate  is  a  n  o  u  n  and  prep- 
osition, or  adjunct;  as,  '  •  lie  is  in  good  spit  - 
its,"  that  is,  "  He  is  cheerful  or  Mtiely"  "  He  is  in 
hopes;'1  that  is,  "He  is  hopeful" 

The  infinitive  with  to  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
same  manner;  as,  "He  is  to  come"  that  is,  "He* 
i*  comi ny." 

V.  Fifth,  the  predicate  is  an  adverb;  as, 
"The  fire  is  out."  "  The  river  is  vp." 

EXERCISES    FOR    ANALYSIS   AND    PARSING. 

Point  out  the  different  forms  of  subject  and 
predicate. 

Water  flows.  Rain  falls.  Trees  grow.  Mary  is  singing. 
The  sun  is  shining.  The  sun  is  hot.  The  ro.41  is  beauti- 
ful. Mary  and  her  sister  arc  happy.  He  is  in  Paris.  The 
tree  is  under  the  hill.  The  stone  is  above  the  spring. 
The  tide  is  out.  The  wind  is  up.  To  deceive  is  base. 
Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  is  the  command  of  God. 

EXERCISES   IN    COMPOSITION. 

Write  these  propositions  supplying  subjects. 


^Compare  in  Latin  Dais  vivit<ao&  lives,  with  Deus  est  vivus 
God  is  living. 


148  .  SYNi'AX. 

■ and gnaw  holes  in  the  ceiling.  ,  , 

and grow  in  the  fields.  is  going  home.  Has  the 

arrived?  is  dishonorable.    such   disturb- 
ance is  wrong. 

Write  these  supplying  predicates. 

The  man .  Winds .  Eagles  — — .  The   clock 

is .  The  tree  is .   My  father  is . 

Write  a  few  sentences  describing  a  potato,  straw-  • 

berries,  a  chair. 

Let  the  teacher  assign  frequently,  similar  exercises  upon 
common,  familiar  subjects. 

SECTION  II.  THE  ATTRIBUTIVE  COMBINATION. 

364.  The  attributive  c  o  m  b  i  n  a  t  i  o  u  also 
consists  of  two  parts;  first 'the  noun,  or  idea  of 
substance;  second,  the  attribute.  The  two  ex- 
press one  idea,  that  of  a  substance:  as  u  A  good 
man"  "A  white  horse." 

1.  The  first  attribute  is  the  adjective. 
When  we  know  that  an  apple  is  sweety  we  speak 
of  it  as  a  sweet  apple. 

9  1.  Thus  attributive  ideas  are  derived  from  pre- 
dicative ;  as,  "The  hill  is  high,"  gives  "The  high 
hill  ;"  "James  is  a  painter,"  gives  "  James,  the 
painter.", 

2.  The  participle  and  the  adverb  used  adjective- 
]y  are  attributives  of  this  class;  as,  "The  rising 
sun."  "The  above  statement."  "The  then  sec- 
retary." 

II.  The  second  attribute  is  the  noun  in  apposi- 
tion, or  a  noun  joined  to  another  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing;  as,  "Christ,  the  Saviour, 
died."    "Thomas," the  carpenter,  is  a  good  man." 

III.  Third,  the  attributive  is  the  possessive  case; 
as,  "John's  hat."  The  force  of  the  possessive  case 


TIIE   ATTRIBUTIVE  COMBINATION.  140 

is  like  that  of  the  adjective.  An  adjunct  may  some- 
times be  substituted  for  it ;  as,  "The  brow  of  the 
mountain"  for  the- mountain's  brow." 

IV.  Fourth,  the  attribute  is  the  adjunct ;  as  "A 
friend  to  the  cause,  is  wanted."  "A  e/oldcn  crown  " 
is  equal  to  "A  crown  of  gold  ;"  "  An  old  man  from 
Italy"  to  "  An  old  Ifalian  (man  ;")  "  The  house  of 
my  father"  to  "My  father  s  house." 

Thus  the  attributes  run  into  each  other. 

The  infinitive  with  to  is  also  an  attribute;  as, 
"A  time  to  play"  "  A  time  for  planing"  "  A  play 
time:" 

EXERCISES. 

Hugh  Miller,  the  Geologist  was  a  mason.  The  tall  pine 
is  a  valuable  tree.  Newton,  the  great  philosopher,  was  an 
humble  Christian.  Mr.  Mason's  house  is  elegant.  The  king 
of  Italy  is  a  brave  soldier.  The  chest  of  oak  is  heavy. 
"The  old  oaken  bucket,"  was  written  by  Wood  worth. 

EXERCISES    IN    COMPOSITION. 

365.  Rules  for  punctuation. 

Rule  T.  Two  or  more,  nouns  following  cadi,  other  in  the 
same  ccnitructiori,  ore  separated  hi/  commas  (,);  as,  "John, 
James,  and  Mary  came."  When  close!//  connected  by  con- 
junctions, they  are  not  separated  ;  as,  "Virtue  and  vice  are 
in  strong  contrast." 

260.  Rule  2.  A  siiK/le  noun  in  apposition  is  not  separa- 
ted; but  when  it  is  modified  In/  several  words,  if  is  then 
separated  by  a,  comma;  as,  "The  apostle  Peter."  "Peter,  the 
apostle,  preached  to  the  Jews.'*  "David  the  king."  "  Da- 
vid, the  king  of  the  Jews." 

Punctuate  the*e  senteric&i.  Tt  is  folly  presumption  wick- 
edness to  attempt  to  supplement  (rod's  means  of  saving 
souls  by  mans.  John  James  and  Henry  came  yesterday. 
Washington  the  father  of  his  country  was  born  in  Virginia. 
Complete  and  punctuate  these  sentences.    Franklin  


150  SYNTAX. 

was    a  printer's  apprentice.    I write  this    exercise. 

The   love is  universal.  book  is  missing.    The 

rose  is  a flower. 

Describe  a  bell,  a  violin,  a  drum,  paper. 

SECTION  III.  -THE  OBJECTIVE  COMBINATION. 

867.  The  Objective  Combination  con^ 
sists  of  two  parts,  a  verb  or  adjective,  containing 
the  idea  of  action,  or  active  properties;  and  an 
object  towards  which  that  action  is  directed  or  by 
which  it  is  limited.  The  two  expresses  but  one 
idea,  that  of  activity. 

368.  The  objective  modifiers  are  various. 

I.  First,  the  objective  case  or  direct  ob- 
ject; as,  "James  studies  his  book."  "  Studies  his 
book"  is  the  objective  combination. 

II.  Second,  the  indirect  object  or  dative 
case;  as,  He  gave  me,  a  book. 

III.  Third,  the  factitive  object,  or  the 
effect  produced;  as,  They  made  him  chairman. 
'"Making  chairman"  is  the  assertion,  him its  object. 
Him  is  the  direct  object;  chairman  the  factitive. 

That  which  any  person  or  thing  is  appointed, 
chosen,  or  constituted,  is  called  the  factitive  object. 
Some  call  it  the  attributive  object. 

The  factitive  relation  appears  in  various  forms  : — 

1st.  As  a  noun.  "They  call  him  John."  "  They  elected 
him  President." 

2nd.  As  an  adjective.  "They  counted  Socrates  wise." 
"Ho  made  us  glad." 

3d.  As  an  infinitive.  "He  should  go."  "They  made 
him  run." 

4th.  As  an  adjunct.  "They  chose  Marius/w  a  general." 

5th.  By  the  conjunction  as  with  words  following. 
"They  regard  him  as  a  hi/pocrite.v  "He  carried  arms  as  a 
show." 


THE  OBJECTIVE  COMBINATION.  151 

IV.  fourth,  the  remote  object.  This  is 
expressed  by  an  adjunct;  as,  "He  repents  of  his 
folly"  "He  is. desirous  of  learning." 

V.  Fifth,  the  object  of  place;-  as,  "John  is  at 
home."  "lie  lives  Acre."  "  Hehas  gone  to Savan- 
nah." 

VI.  Sixth,  the  object  of  time  ;  as,  "  He  rose  be- 
fore sunrise"  "  lie  rose  early." 

VII.  Seventh,  the  object  of  cause  ;  as, "  Socrates 

died/ram  poison." 

VIII.  Eighth,  the  object  of  manner;  as,  He 
speaks  kindly" 

oGI).  An  object  is  anything  by  which  the  verb  or  verbal 
word  is  modified  or  limited. 

Adverbs  and  adjuncts  are  like  each  other  in  use.  Indeed 
the  adverb  is  an  abbreviated  adjunct. 

370.  These  combinations  are  the  elements  of  all 
sentences.  They,  together  with  contracted  con- 
structions, form  language. 

Example.  "A  wise  man  governs  his  passions." 
"Man  governs"  is  the  predicative;  "a wise  man"  the 
attributive;  'k  governs  his  passions,"  the  objective  combi- 
nation. 

EXAMPLES  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

Washington,  the  father  of  his  country,  was  born-in  Vir- 
ginia. The  wise  Socrates  taught  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  The  happy  children  of  our  friend  were  playing  in 
the  garden.     Mary's  sister  reads  well. 

EXERCISE    IN    COMPOSITION. 

371.  llule  3.  Two  or  more  adjectives  modifying  the 
same  subject,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  commas  ; 
as,  "  lie  was  a  brave,  gentle,  dignified  man." 

Punctuate i — The  learned  wise  and  brave  Sydney  fell. 
The  way  was  long  cold  dreary  and  rough.  • 


152  SYNTAX. 

Complete  these  sentences  : — John  studies and 

.  James  asked .    The wind  blows 

and   the falls .   He    has    gone 

and  will  return . 


Write  a  fewsentencea  describing  the::  Singing  of  birds." 

SECTION  IV.  INTERMEDIATE  Oil  CONTRACTED 
PROPOSITIONS. 

372.  There  are  certain  forms  in  which  the  sub- 
ject and  predicate  are  not  fully  expressed,  but 
where  they  are  found  in   a  contracted  form. 

373.  The  sentences  to  which  they  arc  added,  are 

intermediate  between  simple  and    compound  sen- 
tences. 

I.  Th  3  first  is  the  participle;  as,  ':  He  answer- 
ing said." 

This  when  fully  expanded  is  equal  to  u  He  an- 
swered and  said."  Answering  refers  to  he  by  Rule 
XXIII. 

II.  ISecond,  the  participle  used  adver- 
bially; as,  "  He  came  in  si?  g'  ig,"  that  is,  "  He 
came  in  and  he  was  singing."  u  Fie  fed  fighting," 
that  is,  "He  fell  and  he  was  fighting  when  he  fell." 
It  docs  not  mean  that  the  "figliting  person  fell," 
but  that  he  was  fighting   when  he  fell, 

1.  It  is  a  participle,  representing  a  contracted 
proposition  modifying  the  verb  by  expressing  an 
action,  taking  place  at  the  same  time. 

2.  This  concomitant  action  is  expressed  vari- 
ously:— 

1st.  By  a  participle.  "  He  lay  sleeping."  "He  stood  con- 
founded." 

2nd.  By  an  adjective.  "  He  sat  there  sad," 
3d.   By  an   adjunct.   "lie  talks   in  his  sleep.1'     "I  live 
without  htye." 


INTERMEDIATE  OR  CONTRACTED  PROPOSITIONS.    153 

4th.  By  a  noun  preceded  by  as.  "He  stood  as  a  specta- 
tor." 

III.  Third,  the  case  a  b  s  o  1  u  t  e ,  or,  the  noun 
joined  with  a  participle  independent  of  the  rest  of 
the  sentence;  as,  "The  enemy  advancing,  he 
retreated,"  that  is,  "  Because  the  enemy  advanced 
ho  retreated." 

1.  In  such  instances  the  noun  is  now  put  in  the  nomina- 
tive case.  Anciently,  in  Saxon  and  old  English  it  was  tho 
dative. 

2.  So  in  Milton,  ''And  him  destroyed  or  won  to  what 
will  work  his  utter  loss."  The  noun  joined  ^ith  the  par- 
ticiple in  all  such  cases  is  different  from  the  subject  of 
the  sentence. 

IV.  Fourth,  the  i  n  f  i  n  i  t  i  vo  with  to,  or  the 
S  u  p  i  n  e  ;  as,  '■  He  prepared  to  r/o,"  that  is,  "  lie 
prepared  thai  he  might  go." 

This  is  the  infinitive  of  purpose;  as  "He  reads 
to  learn,"  "  lie  reads  tint  he  may  learn." 

V.  Fifth,  the  infinitive  with  an  objective  case ; 
as  "I  advised  him  to  go."  UI  advised  him  that  he 
should  sro  "  or  "I  advised  that  he  should  <xo." 
The  objective  case  is  never  used  with  the  infiniiive 
unless  it  is  different  from  the  subject] 

EXERCISES. 

Expand   the    contracted    sentences   as   shown 

above. 

Walking  down  the  street,  I  met  a  friend.  Having  been 
elected,  he  accepted  the  office.  His  story  having  been 
told,  he  departed,  lie  went  away  rejoicing.  He  labored 
hard  to  prepare  himself  for  his  position,  lie  was  anxious 
to  learn.   I  advised  him  to  return.   He  bade  me  go. 


154  SYNTAX. 

i 
EXERCISES   IN   COMPOSITION. 

374.  Rule  4.  Two  or  more  verbs  or  participles  in  succes- 
sion, relating  to  the  same  subject  are  separatedby  commas; 
as,   "  We  should  pity,   succour,  and    defend   the  poor/' 

When  participles  are  followed  by  modifying  words  they 
are  generally  separated  by  a  comma.  "The  king,  approv- 
ing the  plan,  put  it  in  execution. " 

375"  Rule  5.  All  absolute  expressions  must  be  separated 
by  commas-,  as,  "  To  con/ens  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault. 
"  The  sun  having  arisen,  the  clouds  disappeared."  "  James, 
come  to  me." 

Punctuate: — We  may  advise  exhort  reprove  or  command. 
Virtue  supports  in  adversity  moderates  in  prosperity.  The 
clock  striking  thre<    we  hastened  home.  The  teacher  arriv- 

O 

ingat  this  moment  put  an  end  to  our  play. 

Complete  th%se  sentences: — The    sun   having  set . 

Our  father  returning — .     He  entered .  He 

to  learn  that    he .  He   commanded   him  to . 

Write  a  short  description  of  the  "sounds  in  the  street." 

•     SECTION  V.     COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

SUBORDINATE   PROPOSITIONS. 

37G.  Propositions  may  be  used  like  single  words. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  propositions  when  thus 
used ;  Substantive,  adjective,  and  ad- 
verbial. 

377.  A  substantive  proposition  is  one  that 
may  supply  the  place  of  a  noun. 

1.  First  it  may  be  used  as  a  subject;  as,  "That 
God  exists,  is  true."  "  That  all  must  die,  is  certain." 

2.  Second,  as  the  direct  object;  as,  "We  know 
that  summer  will  come  again."  "  He  said  that  the 
earth  teas  round." 

3.  i'hird,  as  the  second  object;  as,  "The  Bible 
teaches  us  that  God  is  eternal." 

378.  The  adjective  proposition  is  one  that 
performs  the  office  of  an  adjective  ;  as,  "  The  man 


SUBORDINATE    COMPOUND    SENTENCES.  155 

ivho  is  prudent  provides  for  the  future,"  is  equal  to 
"  the  prudent  man."  "Balbus,  who  had  a  sword 
drew  it,"  is  equal  to  "Balbus  having  a  sword, 
drew  it." 

379.  An  adverbial  proposition  is  one  that 
modifies  the  leading  verb  like  an  adverb. 

1.  It  expresses,  first,  the  place;  as,  "  Where  thou 
lodgest,  I  will  lod^e."     "  I  go,  whence  I  shall  not  return." 

2.  Secondly,  the  time;  as,  "  When  the  mail  arrives,  we 
shall  hear  the  news."     "  Until  I  come,  wait  in  patience." 

3.  Thirdly,  the  manner;  as,  "  Forgive  us,  our  debts,  as 
we  forgive  our  debtors."      "H  speaks  so  that  he  is  heard!' 

4.  Fourthly,  the  cause  ;  as,  '  The  pear  fell  off  because 
it  was  ripe." 

5.  Fifthly,  intensity;  as,  "  He  is  as  rich  as  his  broth- 
er." "  The  more  he  afflicted  them,  the  more  they  midti- 
plied." 

380.  Conditional  propositions  are  a  species 
of  adverbial  propositions. 

They  consist  of  two  parts,  the  condition, 
and  the  consequence;  or  protasis  and  apodo- 
sis;  as,  "If  he  studies,  he^will  learn."  "  If  he 
studies,"  is  the  condition.  "He  will  learn,"  is  the 
consequence. 

381.  There  are  four  forms  of  the  conditional 
proposition. 

1st.  Where  both  members  are  in  the  indicative*  mode ; 
as,  "  If  it  rains  I  cannot  go  out."  Here  simple  uncertain- 
ty is  expressed  by  the  condition.  The  verbs  are  in  the 
present  tense. 

2nd.  Where  the  condition  is  subjunctive  or  future 
indicative,  and  the  consequence,  indicative  j*  as,  "  If  it  rain 
(or  shall  rain)  tomorrow  I  shall  not  go/'  Here  uncertainty 
with  reference  to  the  future  is  expressed. 

*Or  potential. 


156  SYNTAX. 

3d.  Uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  condition;  as,  If  hd 
ever  comes  we  shall  know  i{.  , 

4th.  Where  the  imperfect  tense  is  used  in  both  mem- 
bers;  "  If  I  had  anything  I  would  give  it,"  but  Ihavenot. 
Here  a  negation  of  the  condition  is  always  implied. 

382.  As  a  general  thing,  whenever  the  present  tense 
is  used  in  conditional  sentences,  simple  uncertainty  is  de- 
noted with  reference  sometimes  to  the  present,  sometimes 
to  the  future  ;  but,  when  the  past  tense  is  used,  a  certain- 
ty that  what  is -affirmed'or  denied  is  not  true,  is  denoted. 

1.  "If  I  have  the  book  "  means  I  am  not  certain  wheth- 
er I  have  it  or  not.  "If  I  had  the  book"  means  I  have  not 
got  it."     "If  I  had  not  the  book  "  means  that  I  have  it. 

2.  These  past  tense,  thus  used,  generally  re  fur  to  pres- 
ent time.      "  If  [  had  it"  means  that  I  have  it  not  now. 

3.  The  same  is  the  case  when  the  conditional  conjunc- 
tions are  not  expressed;  as,  "Had  I."     "  Were  I."  &c. 

EXERCISES. 

That  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  is  easily  proved.  When 
letters  were  first  used,  is  uncertain.  Why  he  resigned  his 
office,  will  soon  be  made  known.  He  whom  I  loved,  is 
dead.  The  rewards  which  are  promised,  shall  be  given. 
Whither  thou  goest,  I  will  go.  When  the  bell  rings,  we 
must  go  to  school.  If  it  docs  not  rain  I  will  come.  If  I 
had  not  the  book  I  woulfl  purchase  it. 

EXERCISES  IN    COMPOSITION. 

883.  Rule  G.  Phrases,  clauses,  and  subordinate  proposi- 
tions that  arc  not  restrictive  arc  separated  by  commas. 

By  restrictive  clauses  are  meant  those  which  are  neces- 
sary to  express  the  meaning  of  the  sentence;  as,  "I  love 
not  the  person  that  slanders  his  neighbor."  That  slander* 
his  neighbor,  is  a  restrictive  clause  modifying  person. 

Some  of  the  principal  clauses,  &c,  thus  separated  are: — 
1.  The  relative  clause,  except  when  restrictive  ;  as,  "Ellen, 
who  was  up  early,  came  down."  "Those  who  are  good, 
are  happy."  Where  the  connection  between  the  anticedent 
and  the  relative  is  very  close,  as  in  this  last  case,  the  two 
are  not  separated.  2.  The  participial  clause.  3.  The  ad- 
verbial clause.  4.  Vocative  expressions.  5.  The  phrases 
m  short,  in  truth  &c  ;  the  words  besides,  moreover r  namely, 
&c. 


SUBORDINATE    COMPOUND    SENTENCES.  157 

Punctuate: — Washington  who  is  called  the  father  of  his 
country  was  the  first  President.  When  the  wind  blows 
the  trees  sway  before  it.  lie  who  wants  to  catch  fish 
however  must  not  mind  a  wetting. 

Write  sentences  describing  the  "  Sounds  in  a  farmyard." 

SECTION  VI.     CO-ORDINATE  PROPOSITIONS. 

384.  In  the  next  condition  of  sentences,  inde- 
pendent propositions  are  brought  by  the  side  of 
each  other,  and  joined  together  to  express  one 
thought;  as,  "  The  sun  shines,  and  the  air  is  mild." 

885.  This  is  done  in  three  ways ;  by  uniting 
them,  by  opposing  them,  by  accounting  for  one  by 
means  of  the  other. 

386.  The  first  class  are  called  copulative; 
the  second,  adversative;  the  third,  causal. 

Point  out  in  these  propositions  the  members 
and  connectives. 

COPULATIVE    PROPOSITIONS. 

The  sun  shines,  and  the  clouds  are  breaking  away. 
Heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away.  He  has  not  only  heard 
the  lecture,  but  also  understood  it.  He  is  both  learned 
and  wise.  lie  is  poor  and  happy.  He  is  wise  as  well  as 
learned. 

ADVERSATIVE    PROPOSITIONS. 

He  is  not  an  Englishman,  but  a  Frenchman.  The 
house  is  convenient,  but  the  garden  is  waste.  Either 
John  or  his  brother  will  come. 

In  such  sentences  as  the  last  the  conjunctive 
words  enter  in  pairs  expressed  or  understood  ;  as, 
"  Whether  James  or  John  will  come  is  uncertain." 
"  Neither  Mary  nor  her  sister  are  here." 

14 


158  SYNTAX' 

CAUSAL  PROPOSITIONS, 

Enoch  was  not,  for  God  took  him.  He  is  idle,  therefore 
he  is  poor.  He  is  quarrelsome,  therefore  people  avoid  him. 
He  is  guilty,  for  he  blushes. 

For  farther  illustrations  see  the  article  on  classes 
of  conjunctions. 

387.  When  the  propositions  are  so  connected 
together  as  to  form  a  complete  thought  they  form 
a  Period;  as,  "  God  is  loved,  for  he  is  good.%  ■ 

Periods  may  he  simple  or  compound.  "  Though 
I  walk  through  the  valley  of  the  shadow  of  death, 
I  will  fear  no  evil;  for  thou  art  with  me"  is  a 
compound  period.  "Though  I  walk  through  the 
valley  of  the  shadow  of  death,  I  will  fear  no  evil," 
is  one  period.  "  I  will  fear  no  evil  for  thou  art 
with  me,"  is'another.  The  two  form  a  compound 
period. 

Periods  singly  or  combined  form  the  highest 
condition  of  language. 

EXERCISES    IN    COMPOSITION. 

388.  Rule  7.  Words  used  in  pairs  are  separated  by 
commas  ;  as,  "  Industry  an<J  virtue,  idleness  and  vice,  go 
hand  in  hand."* 

Punctuate: — Summer  and  winter  seedtime  and  har- 
vest are  the  gifts  of  Providence.  Truth  is  fair  and  artless 
simple  and  sincere  uniform  and  consistant.  Whether  we 
eat  or  drink  labor  or  sleep  we  should  be  moderate. 

Write  sentences  containing  these  words: — Handsome, 
graceful,  diligent,  flowers,  reading,  kind,  gentle,  country, 
fields,  school,  houses.    Describe  a  "  railroad  train." 


THE   SUBJECT    OP   THE    PROPOSITION.  159 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

THE    RULES    OF    SYNTAX    WITH    REMARKS    AND    ILLUS- 
TRATIONS. 

The  rules  are  arranged  according    to    the    development 
of  propositions  and  sentences. 

RULE    I.       THE  SUBJECT    OF    THE    VERB. 

.  389.  The  subject  of  the  finite  verb  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case. 

1.  The  subject  of  the  imperative  is  generally 
understood;  as,  Go  (thou.)  Conic  (ye.) 

2.  The  nominative  regularly  precedes  the  verb, 
but  in  imperative  and  interrogative,  and  in  condi- 
tional sentences  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted, 
and  also  when  there,  'here,  then,  an4  some  other 
words  introduce  a  sentence,  it  is  placed  after  the 
verb;  as,  "Had  /been  there."  "  There  was  a  tree 
near  by." 

3.  When  interrogative  pronouns  are  used  they 
precede  the  verb. 

4.  In  answers  to  questions  the  noun  is  fre- 
quently used  without  a  verb  expressed;  as  "Who 
gave  it  to  you  ?''  Ans',  "  John  "  (gave  it  to  nte.) 

5.  The  noun  and  pronoun  must  not  be  used 
with  the  same  verb;  as,  "The  king  is  just,"  not 
"The  king  he  is  just." 

Them  should  not  be  used  for  these  and  those. 

EXERCISES. 

Stephen  died  a  martyr  to  his  faith.     Napoleon  Bonaparte 

was  the  first  emperor  of  France,     (rod  tempers  the  wind 

to  the  shorn  lamb.     The  trees  are  faaen  with  fruit.     The 

prudent  will  be  respected,  but  the  careless  will  be  despised. 


>  • 


160  SYNTAX. 

Correct  these  sentences: — Them  are  delightful.  Hiin 
and  me  were  there.  You  and  me  saw  them.  Are  not 
him  and  her  cousins.  The  Queen  she  is  a  noble  lady. 
John  he  has  gone  to  school. 

9 
EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

390.  Rule  8.  When  a  verb  or  conjunction  is  omitted,  its 
place  is  usually  supplied' by  a  comma,  as,  "James  reads, 
writes,  and  ciphers."  "From  law  arises  security;  from 
security,  curiosity;  from  curiosity,  knowledge." 

Punctuate: — Study  makes  a  learned  man  experience  a 
wise  one.  Rapid  exhaustless  deep  his  numbers  flowed. 
The  author  dreads  the  critic  the  miser  the  thief  the 
criminal  the  magistrate,  and  every  tody  public  opinion. 

Complete  these  sentences:  gladdens  us. was 

dear. fell  on  the  battle  field.     Is at  home  ? is 

'  an  important  study. is  the    highest   duty  of  man. 

.  is  honorable, is  base. 

Write  a  description  of  "  a  bridge." 

RULE    II.       AGREEMENT    OF    THE    VERB. 

391.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
number  and  person. 

1.  Every  verb  must  have  a  subject  expressed  or 
understood.  In  poetry,  the  nominative  is  often 
omitted;  as,  " Lives  there  a  man  who  loves  his 
pain."* 

2.  A  singular  noun  used  in  a  plural  sense  takes 
a  verb  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  Twenty  sail  were  seen." 

3.  An  intransitive  verb  between  two  nomina- 
tives of  different  numbers  usually  agrees  with  the 
first;  as,  "His  meat  ivas  locusts  and  wild  honey/' 

Except  in  "The  wages  of  sin  is  death."  Some 
think  that  wages  here  is  singular. 

4.  The  verbs  need,  wttnt,  and  require,  are  sometimes 
used  in  a  passive  sense  in  the  active  voice;    as,    "There 


AGREEMENT    OF    THE    VERB.  161 

needs  no  argument  to  prove,  &c."  That  is  "  No  argument 
is  needed,  &c."  ;'  There  wanted  not  men  to  fight  in  such 
a  cause." 

5.  Need  and  dare  when  intransitive  are  sometimes  used 
in  the  plural  with  a  singular  subject;  as,  "She  need  not 
go."    "He  dare  not  repeat  those  words." 

6.  Such   expressions  as,  as  regards,    as    appear*,    as 
follows,  are  equivalent  to,  as  it  regards,  as  it  appears. 

Regards,  appears  in  such  cases  are  unipersonnl  verbs 
agreeing  with  it. 

7.  Some  unipersonal  verbs  agree  with  a  clause  follow- 
ing them  ;  as,  "It  becomes  us  to  fulfil  all  righteousness  " 

1  Tb  fulfil  all  righteousness  becomes  us."     The  it  is  an  in- 
troductory word. 

8.  Collective  nouns,  when  the  assertion  is  made 
of  the  whole  of  the  individuals  composing  them, 
as  one  body,  take  the  verb  in  the  singular;  as, 
"The  court  has  just  ended  its  session."  But,  when 
it  is  made  of  eaoh  individual  composing  it,  the 
verb  is  plural;  as,  "A  great  multitude  hurl  stones 
and  darts." 

When  they  may  be  substituted  for  the  nouns, 
the  verbs  must  be  plural ;  when  it,  singular. 

EXERCISES. 

Varro  was  esteemed  a  learned  man,  but  Aristides  was 
called  just.  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.  Titus  has  been 
called  the  delight  of  the  human  race.  A  variety  of  bless- 
ings has  been  conferred  upon  us.  The  morning  stars 
sang  together  and  the  sons  of  God  shouted  for  joy. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

The  clouds  has  dispersed.  There  were  three  men  in  the 
company.  What  names  has  the  planets?  A  variety  of 
pleasing  prospects  charm  the  eye.  Thee  was  more  iin- 
posters  than  one.  She  need  help;  but  she  needs  not  re- 
main. Sixty  pounds  of  wheat  produces  forty  pounds  of 
flour.  The  Legislature  have  adjourned.  The  Court  does 
not  agree.     The  assembly    was    divided.     Five   brace    of 


162  SYNTAX. 

pigeons  was  sold    for  one  dollar.     Fifty  cannon  was  dis- 
charged. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

392.  llule  8.  A  comma  must  be  placed  before  and,  or, 
and  nor,  when  they  connect  the  last  of  a  series  of  words  or 
of  clauses;  as,  "He  runs,  leaps,  and  bounds  along.  The 
merciful  man  will  not  maim  an  insect,  trample  on  a 
worm,  or  cause  a»  unnecessary  pang  to  the  humblest  of 
created  beings." 

Punctuate  .-—Charles  Thomas  and  George  are  brothers. 
So  eagerly  the  Fiend  o'er  bog  or  steep  through  strait 
rough  dense  or  rare  with  head  hands  wings  or  feet  pursues 
his  way. 

Complete   these: — To  steal .     John his 

book.     The  meeting— .     The  judges divided 

in  opinion. 

Write  a  description  o/*"a  mountain." 

SUB-KULE  I. 

393.  rlwo  or  more  subject  nominatives  singular  con- 
nected by  and  require  a  plural  verb. 

1.  When  the  nouns  thus  connected  are  modified 
by  each,  every,  either,  neither,  and  no,  the  verb  is 
singular. 

2.  Singular  subjects  connected  by  and  also,  as 
well  as,  take  the  verb  in  the  singular;  as,  "  Caesar, 
as  well  as  Cicero,  was  an  orator." 

3.  A  singular  subject  united  to  another  by  witl\y 
in  company  with,  requires  a  singular  verb;  as, 
"  The  General,  with  his  staff,  has  come." 

4.  When  the  subject-nominatives  refer  to  the 
same  person  or  thing,  the  verb  is  singular;  as, 
i:  Tne  saint,  the  father,  and  the   husband  prays." 

5.  A  verb  may  agree  with  the  .first  noun  and  be 
understood  with  the  rest;  as,  "Thy  beauty  walks, 
thy  tenderness  and  love," 


AGREEMENT  WITH  SUBJECTS  TAKEN  SEPARATELY.  163 

6.  When  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons 
the  verb  prefers  the  first  to  the  second,  and  the 
second  to  the  third  ;  as,  "James  and  I  are  going." 

EXERCISES. 

Reason  and  truth  constitute  intellectual  gold,  lliches, 
honors,  and  pleasures,  steal  away  the  heart  from  religion. 
He  and  I  are  foes.  My  aunt,  with  her  daughter,  was  here 
yesterday. 

To  fish  and  hunt  are  pleasant.  Either  sex  and  every 
age  was  engaged  in  the  pursuits  of  industry.  His  ready 
wit,  together  with  his  varied  acquirements,  makes  him  an 
agreeable  companion. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

Much  do  human  pride  and  folly  require  correction. 
Idleness  and  ignorance  is  the  parent  of  many  vices.  The 
general,  with  several  soldiers,  were  taken.  Virtue,  and 
not  riches,  produce  esteem. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

o04.  Rule  9.  A  comma  should  be  placed  he/ore  and,  or, 
if,  but,  and  that,  when  they  connect  short  sentences;  as,  "  You 
must  come  with  me,  or  I  will  go  with  you." 

Punctuate: — Stephen  saw  his  cousin  coming  and  ran  to 
meet  her.  My  horse  is  not  handsome  but  he  trots  well. 
Be  virtuous  that  you  may  be  esteemed. 

■  Vfrite  sentences  containing  these  expressions: — Hard 
study.  Ignorance  and  idleness.  Geography  teaches  us. 
Birds  nests.  Fought  bravely.  The  tops  of  high 
mountains. 

Describe  ';a  river." 

SUB-RULE  II. 

8£T5.  Two  or  more  subject  nominatives  singular  can-% 
nccted  by  or  or  nor  require  a  singular  verb. 

1.  When  subjects  ot  different  numbers  are  thus 
connected  the  verb  should  be  plural,  and  the  plural 


164  SYNTAX. 

subject  if  possible  be  placed  next  to  it ;  as,  "Neith- 
er poverty  nor  riches  were  his." 

2.  If  the  substantives  are  of  different  persons  the 
verb  agrees  with  the  nearest.  "Thou,  he,  or  I  am 
going." 

3.  It  is  better  in  such  cases  that  the  verb  should 
follow  each  subject;  as,  "Either  thou  art  mis- 
taken, or  he  is." 

EXERCISES. 

Ignorance  or  negligence  lias  caused  the  mistake.  Neither 
the  captain  nor  the  sailors  were  acquainted  with  the  coast. 
One  or  both  of  the  witnesses  were  present.  Thou  mayst 
go,  or  he,  but  not  both. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

James  or  Charles  were  in  fault.  Neither  fear  nor 
jealousy  affect  him.  Either  thou  or  he  art  to  blame. 
Either  George  or  I  has  the  work  to  perform.  Were  this 
philosopher  and  poet,  or  his  critic  in  the  wrong?  Have 
the  dictionary,  the  spelling  book,  or  the  grammar  been 
found. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

S9G.  Rule  10.  When  the  logical  subject  consists  of  many 
words,  or  ends  with  a  verb,  it  is  cut  off  by  a  comma;  as, 
"Whatever  breathes,  lives." 

Punctuate: — Every  impure  angry  revengeful  and  en- 
vious thought  is  a  violation  of  duty.  The  evil  that  men 
do  lives  after  them, 

Write  sentences  containing  these  clauses : — Those  who  are 
virtuaus. — The  rain  having  ceased. — The  boy  who 
studies. — The  place  in  which  we  live. —  By  reading  good 
books. — Having  arisen. — 

9  HULE    III.       TUB  PREDICATE  NOUN  OR  PRONUON. 

397.  The  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  predicate 
agrees  with  the  subject  in  case, 


THE  PREDICATE  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN.      165 

1.  It  does  not  always  agree  with  it  in  number;  as, 
"  Honest  men  are  the  salt  of  the  earth."  "Sixpence 
is  twelve  half  pennies ."  » 

2.  The  verbs  that  admit  a  noun  in  the  predicate 
are  to  be,  td  become  and  the  passive  voice  of  such 
verbs  as  to  name,to  render,  to  make,  to  esteem,  &c. 

3.  When  the  predicate  noun  follows  the  infini- 
tive, it  is  put  in  the  objective  case;  as,  "I  knew 
him  to  be  a  knave."  Except  in  such  sentences,  as 
"  lo  be  a  learned  man  is  no  easy  attainment."  Man 
is  in  the  nominative  used  absolutely. 

4.  A  noun  after  the  participle  of  an  intransitive 
verb  or  passive  voice  is  put  in  the  same  case  as  the 
noun  or  pronoun  which  the  participle  modifies; 
as,  "Being  a  soldier,  I  could  not  resist  the  call." 

5.  Except  when  the  participle  is  preceded  by 
the  possessive;  as,  "I  am  suspicious  of  his  being 
a  rogue  "  or  "that  he  is  a  rogue."  "  His  being  a 
rogue  "  is  the  object  of  of.  Rogue,  is  in  the  nomi- 
native absolute. 

EXERCISES. 
Clement  was  the  name  of  many  popes.  Cassar  was  not 
only  a  great  general,  but  an  orator  and  a  historian.  What 
is  the  hour?  We  thought  him  to  be  a  rogue.  Brutus  is 
represented  as  having  been  an  ardent  lover  of  bis  country. 
I  am  tired  of  being  an  idler.  He  is  angry  with  me  on  ac- 
count of  my  being  a  friend  to  his  enemy. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED 
It  was  not  him  that  said  it.     It  cannot  be  him.     Whom 
are  you?     I  did  not  think  of  its  being  him.     1  could  not 
believe  it  was  her. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 
398.  Rule  11.  In   a    complex  sentence,    the   dependent 
clame  is  separated  hi/  a  comma  from  the  principal  clause  ; 


166  .  SYNTAX. 

as,  "  When  our  vices  leave  us,  we  flatter  ourselves  that 
we  leave  them.'' 

Punctuate: — The  temperate  man's  pleasures  are  durable 
because  they  are  regular.  When  we  go  to  the  city  we 
part  with  the  pleasures  of  the  country.  "V^Jiither  thou 
goest  I  will  go  and  where  thou  lodgest  I  will  lodge. 

Write  sentences  containing  these  expressions: — A  hundred 
years  hence.  Before  Columbus  discovered  America. 
After  the  storm  ceased.  Where  the  river  rises.  Down 
by  the  river  side. 

RULE  IV.     apposition. 

399.  A  noun  or  pronoun  limiting  another 
noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  same  person  or 
thing,  agrees  with  it  in  case;  as,«"Paul,  the 
apostle."   "  Ye,  men  of  Athens." 

1.  The  noun  thus  limiting  another  is  said'to  be 
in  apposition.  It  is  joined  to  it,  for  the  sake  of 
explaining  it  more  particularly;  as,  "  James,  the 
painter.''  Painter  limits  James  and  tells  who  is 
meant. 

2.  A  noun  may  be  in  apposition  -with  anything 
that  may  stand  in  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  an  adjective, 
infinitive,  phrase,  or  sentence;  as,  "  You  write  and 
speak  correctly,  a  habit  you  should  cultivate.  . 

3.  A  phrase  or  sentence  may  be  in  apposition 
with  a  noun ;  as,  "  My  motion,  that  the  subject  be 
laid  on  the  table,  prevailed. 

4.  A  noun  denoting  the  whole  is  sometimes 
followed  by  other  words  denoting  the  parts;  as, 
."  They  travelled  in  company,  some  on  horseback, 
some  in  carriages,  others  on  foot.  So,  "They  fled, 
every  man  to  his  tent."   "  They  love  each  other," 


«HE  NOUN  OR  PRONOUN  IN  APPOSITION.  167 

5.  When  two  nouns  come  together  in  the  pos- 
sessive case,  the  sign  is  annexed  to  the  last;  as, 
"  John,  the  Baptist's  head." 

6.  A  noun  in  apposition  with  two  or  more  nouns 
is  put  in  the  plural;  as  "Romulus  and  Remus, 
grandsons  of  Nu  mitor. ' ' 

7.  In  sentences  like,  "My  father  intended  m*e  as  the 
tithe  of  his  sons,"  some  parse  tithe  in  apposition  with  me; 
others,  as  in  the  objective  case  after  as,  as  a  preposition, 
meaning  in  "  the  character  of "  This  phrase  may  be 
substituted  for  as  in  all  such  cases,  but  there  is  nothing  in 
the  word  itself  to  warrant  it. 

It  is  more  consistent  to  parse  tithe  in  the  objective  case 
connected  by  as  with  me  and  governed  by  devote. 

In  "  His  office  as  judge  must  be  responsible  " ;  judge  is 
usually  parsed  in  the  possessive  in  apposition  with  his. 

But  it  is  the  office,  the  judgeship,  that  is  responsible; 
and  it  seems  to  me  better  to  parse  judge  as  connected  by 
as  with  office  and,  therefore,  in  the  same  case. 

EXERCISES. 

Herschel,  the  astronomer,  discovered  the  planet  Uranus. 
You  are  too  humane  and  considerate,  things  few  people 
can  be  charged  with.  To  travel  comfortably,  a  very  ne- 
cessary thing  in  my  case  was  impossible.  You  write  very 
carelessly,  a  habit  you  must  correct.  It  can  be  found  at 
Jones,  the  bookseller's  shop.  I  am  pleased  with  your 
appointment  as  chaplain.  Forever  honored  be  this,  the 
place  of  our  father's  refuge.  I,  Victoria,  Queen  of  Eng- 
land, make  proclamation.  They  have  fallen,  each  in  his 
field  of  glory. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

Such  was  the  career  of  Burns,  he  who  delighted  a  whole 
nation  with  his  songs.  They  killed  the  chief,  he  who 
was  at  the  fort  yesterday.  They  stopped  at  Brown's  the 
merchants.  They  went  each  their  own  way.  Thomas 
and  James, -our  cousin  has  come. 


168  SYNTAX. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

400.  Rule  12.  When  transposit 'on  occurs,  so  that  a 
phrase  or  adjunct  which  naturally  follows  the  verb  pre- 
cedes it,  a  comma  is  used ;  as,  "To  those  who  labor,  sleep 
is  doubly-  pleasant,  for,  "Sleep  is  doubly  pleasant  to  those 
who  labor/' 

Punctuate : — Of  all  the  passions  vanity  is  the  most 
unsocial. .  Whether  such  a  person  as  Homer  ever  existed 
we  cannot  say.  How  the  old  magicians  performed  their 
miracles  is  difficult  to  explain. 

Write  a  description  of  a  wagon ;  point  out  its  parts  and 
their  uses.  Describe  the  materials  of  which  it  is  made; 
show  their  origin,  and  the  different  processes  and  workman 
required. 

RULE   Y.      THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

401.  A  noun  or  pronoun  limiting  another 
noun  denoting  a  different  person  or  thing  is  put 
in  the  possessive  case,  as  "John's  hat."  "His 
book." 

1.  The  limited  noun  is  often  omitted  when  it  may 
be  easily  known  ;  as,  I  dined  at  Johnson's  (house.) 

2.  When  the  thing  possessed  belongs  to  two  or 
more  persons,  the  sign  is  annexed  to  the  last ;  as, 
"John,  James,  and  William's  house." 

"  3.  But  when  it  belongs  to  each  person  separately 
it  must  be  added  to  each  ;  as,  Worcester's  and 
Webster's  dictionaries. 

4.  When  several  words  are  combined  together 
as  one  term,  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is  annexed 
to  the  last;  as,  "  The  King  of  Saxony's  army." 
"  The  King  of  Saxony's  "  is  one  term,  and  should 
be  parsed  together  as  a  modifier  of  army. 

5.  When  possessives  are   in   apposition,  if  the 


THE    POSSESSIVE    CASE.  169 

noun  lirrjitod  is  omitted,  the  sign  is  added  to  the 
first;  as,  "  I  saw  him  at  Brown's,  the  bookseller 
and  stationer."' 

6.  The  objective  with  of  is  usually  equivalent  to 
the  possessive;  as,  "The  advice  of  my  father,"  or 
uMy  father's  advice." 

7.  When  the  thing  possessed  is  one  of  a  number, 
the  possessive  and  adjunct  are  both  used  ;  as,  "  A 
friend  of  his  brother's,  "  or  "  One  of  his  brothers 
friends." 

!S.  When  a  noun  depends  upon  a  participle  it  is 

put  in  the  possessive  case;  as  "His  father's  being 

a  judge  had   some  influence."     "John's    having 

been  a  soldier  secured  him  the  appointment." 

!>.  According  to  past  usage  the  verbal  noun  docs  not 
receive  an  article,  an  adjective,  or  a  possessive  case  before 
it.  it  then  has  the  government  of  a  verb;  as,"  "  He  was 
engaged  in  reading  Plato."  "  B$  establishing  good  laws 
we  secure  peace." 

10.  When  it  receives  attributive  modifiers  it  ceases  to 
be  a  verbal  noun,  and  becomes  an  abstract  noun,  and  can- 
not according  to  past  usage  have  the  government  of  a  verb. 
Compare,  "Useful  for  the  clear  understanding  of  the 
word,"  and  "Useful  for  clearly  understanding  the  word." 

11.  The  tendency  is  to  drop  the  of  following  these 
abstract  verbals  and  make  them  govern  a  case;  as,  "It  will 
depend  on  my  father's  giving  his  consent.  "  "  The  mixing 
them  makes  a  miserable  jumble." 

This  is  not  justified  by  the  spirit  of  the  language. 

EXERCISLS. 

Man's  extremity  is  God's  opportunity.  Whose  works 
are  these?  They  are  Cicero's,  the  most  eloquent  of  men. 
lie  accompanied  me  to  St.  Mary's.  Peter,  John,  and 
Andrew's  occupation  was  that  of  fishermen. 

The  Queen  of  Great  Britain's  proclamation  has  just  been 
issued.  Smith  brothers'  and  Thompson's  stores  are  the 
largest.     By  studying  diligently  we  improve. 

15 


170  SYNTAX. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 
Webster  or  Johnson's  dictionary.  McOarter's  and 
Dawson's  bookstore.  There  is  no  danger  of  that  complaint 
being  made  at  present.  This  was  your  fathers  estate. 
Onennans  loss  is  another  man's  gain.  Williams  books  are 
better  than  Jamesis.  David  and  Solomon's  reigns  were 
prosperous.  This  was  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 
The  medicine  was  procured  at  Bn»wn  the  apothecary 
and  druggist's. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION.    * 

402.  Rule  13.  A  comma  is  used  to  separate  words  and 
clauses,  expressing  contrast,  or  opposition;  as, 

"Liberal,  not  lavish,  is  kind  nature's  hand." 

"  Though  deep,  yet  clear  ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull." 

Punctuate : — A  good  man  will  love  himself  too  well  to 
lose  and  his  neighbor  too  well  to  win  an  estate  by  gaming. 
Not  only  in  union  with  but  in  opposition  to  the  views  and 
conduct  of  one  another. 

Describe  a  slate,  giving  its  form;  the  materials  of  which 
it  is  made,  their  qualities,  their  origin;  and  its  uses, 
together  with  anything  else  you  can  think,  of  concerning 
it. 

RULE    VI,       ADJECTIVES. 

403.  Adjectives  modify  nouns  and  pronouns, 
as,  "  A  good  man."     " He  is  wise" 

I.   DESCRIPTIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Adjectives  may  be  used  both  as  predicates 
and.  attributes. 

2.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  to  modify 
other  adjectives ;  as,  a  bright  blue  pitcher,  pale  red 
silk,  red  hot  iron.  Participles  are  also  sometimes 
used  in  this  manner;  as,  roaring  drunk,  loving 
jealous,  staring  mad. 

3.  An  adjective  may  modify  a  noun  and  another 


AdJECTlVES.  171 

adjective  taken  together;  as,  "A  fine  bay  horse" 
tk  A  pretty  wooden  bowl" 

4.  The  adjective  may  modify  anything  that  can 
take  the  place  of  a  noun  ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sun  is 
pleasant."  To  lie  is  base."  "  Whether  we  shall  go 
is  uncertain." 

5.  With  infinitives  and  participles  the  adjective  is  some- 
times used  indefinitely;  as,  "To  be  wise  .and  good  is  to  be 
yreat  and  noble."  "Being  Honest  is  better  than  being 
wealthy." 

These  are  contracted  expressions  in  which  wise  and 
good  stand  in  the  predicate. 

6.  Several'  intransitive  verbs,  as  look,  seem,  feel,  taste, 
smetf,  shine,  remove,  stanct ^continue,  &g.,  receive  an  adjective 
modifying  the  subject  after  them;  as,  "He  looks  cold." 
These  two  ideas  looking  and  cold  are  asserted  of  he. 

With  such  verbs,  if  the  subject  is  to  be  modified,  the 
adjective  is  used  ;  if  the  predicate,  the  adverb;  as,  "  She 
looks  cold."     »  She  looks  coldly  on  him." 

7.  When  the  adjective  expresses  the  factitive  relation 
it  modifies  transitive  verba ;  as,  "  The  news  made  us  glad.*' 
••  .Making  glad  "is  the  assertion,  "us"  its  object..  Such 
adjectives  agree  with  the  object,  but  modify  the  verb. 

8.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  as  adverbs;  as,  "  Soft 
sighed  the  flute."     This  use  is  found  chiefly  in  the  poets. 

As  a  general  rule,  adjectives  must  not  be  used  as  ad- 
verbs. 

9.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns 
when  preceded  by  the  definite  article,  sometimes 
without ;  as,  "  The  wise,  the  good."  "  The  beau- 
tiful."    "Good  and  evil." 

10.  Nouns  and  phrases  are  sometimes  used  as 
adjectives  ;  as,  "  A  stone  floor."  "  A  brick  house." 
"  Off-hand  manner." 

11.  When  two  objects  are  compared,  the  com- 
parative is  used  ;  when  more  than  two,  the  super- 
lative. %% 

12.  When  the  comparative   is   used  the  latter 


172  S'EJN'TAX. 

term  must  exclude  the  former;  as,  "Texas  is 
larger  than  any  other  State."  When  the  super- 
lative is  used  the  latter  must  include  the  former; 
as,  "  Socrates  was  the  wisest   of   the  Athenians." 

13.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should 
be  avoided. 

14.  In  forms  like  this,  "  Wilson  is  a  better 
blacksmith  than  a  carpenter,'"  if  two  persons  are 
meant,  the  article  should  be  used;  if  but  one,  it 
should  not. 

II.  DEFINITIVE   ADJECTIVES. 

25.  Adjectives  that  have   number   must  agree 
with  their  nouns  in  number;  as,  one  day,  iJmdays, 
is  man,  these  men. 

16.  The  distributive  adjectives  require  the  noun?,  pro- 
nouns, and  verbs  with  which  they  are  u>cd  to  be  in  the 
singular;  as,   "  Every  tree  is  known  by  ite  iVn.it." 

Except  when  they  are  joined  with  numerals;*?,  "  Every 
ten  years." 

17.  Many  is  used  with  a  singular  noun  when  a  is  pre- 
fixed; as,  ;-  Many  a  man." 

18.  Either  is ^pmetimes  used  fur  each  ;  as,    '-On  either 
te  one/' 

19.  Both  is  put  in  apposition  with  pronouns  to  render 
them  emphatic;  as,  "I  will  teach  you  Lath." 

20.  Some  with  numerals  signifies  about:  as,  "Some  ten 
years  ago." 

21.  Than  should  not  be  used  in  place  of  these  and  those.. 

III.  POSITION  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

22.  The  adjective  is  generally  placed  immediate- 
ly before  its  noun. 

23.  It  is  placed  after  it: — 

1.  When  it  is  limited  by  an  adjunct;  as,  Food  convenient 
forme. 

2,  When  it  expresses  a  title;    as,  Alexander,  the  great. 


POSITION   OF    ADJECTIVES.  173 

3.  When  it  is  a  predicate;  except  for  emphasis;  as, 
"  Great  is  the  Lord." 

4.  When  expressing  the  factitive  relation  ;  as,  "  God 
made  all  things  good." 

5.  When  it  •modifies  a  pronoun  in  the  objective  case; 
as,  "  We  found  her  well." 

6.  AVhen  time,  number,  dimension,  and  value  arc  de- 
noted; as,  "He  is  four  years  old".;  "twenty  thousand 
strong;"  ua  wall  three  feet  thick;"  "a,  book  worth  a 
dollar." 

7.  All  is  sometimes  separated  by  the  from  its  noun; 
such  and  many  by  a. 

8.  Adjectives  modified  by  *o  and  as  are  separated  by  a  ; 
as,  wi  so  rich  a  dress." 

9.  Some  adjectives  are  used  only  in  the  predicate; 
others  are  placed  after  their  nouns  for  the  sake  of  emphasis 
on  poetic  usage. 

EXERCISES. 

The  good  man  is  happy.  To  advance  was  difficult,  to 
retreat,  dangerous.  Whether  he  will  come  or  not  is  un- 
certain, lie  was  dressed  in  a  light  blue  suit  and  rode  on 
a  dark  bay  horse.  A  beautiful  young  lady  was  leading  a 
venerable  old  man.  To  become  learned  and  great  is  a 
work  of  much  difficulty.  The  hay  smells  sweet.  The 
wind  blows  chill.  He  stood  still.  And  louder  yet  and 
yet  more  dread  swells  the  high  trump  that  wakes  the 
dead.  Hope  deferred  maketh  the  heart  sick.  Thou 
makest  the  earth  soft  with  showers.  Men  call  the  pros- 
perous, happy.  We  were  made  glad.  It  is  but  a  step 
from  the  sublime  to  the  ridiculous.  Solomon  was  wiser 
than  any  Roman  king.  Numawas  wiser  than  any  other 
Roman  king.  He  was  the  wisest  of  all  the  Roman  king! 
This  boy  is  industrious,  that  one  is  idle.  A  st  >ne  wall 
encloses  yonder  old  brick  church.  Each  man  must  act 
for  himself. 

To   BE   CORRECTED. 

A  new  barrel  of  flour.     A  green  load  of  wood.     A  i 
pair  of  shoes.      She  reads  proper  and  writes  neat.      He  was 
such  an  extravagant  man  that  ho  soon  wasted  his  property* 
A  tree  fifty  Jbot  high.     Young  promising  men    are   often 
lead  astray  by    temptation.      Jupiter    is    larger    than  any 


1T4  SYNTAX. 

• 
planet.  The  elephant  has  more  instinct  than  any  an- 
imal. I  see  good.  "We  .  stood  silently.  Henry  is  tlje 
elder  of  the  three  brothers.  James  is  the  oldest  of  the 
two.  Those  sort  of  favors.  Bring  mo  them  pens.  Neither 
of  the  men  has  reason  to  complain. 

EXERCISE    IN    COMPOSITION. 

404.  Rule  14.  Members  of  sentences,  containing  correla- 
tive adverbs  and  conjunctions  are.  separated  by  commas;  as, 

••  The  harder  we  study,  the  better  we  like  to  study." 

Punctuate : — As  a  cloud  darkens  the  sky  so  sorrow 
darkens  the  mind.  As  thy  day  so  shall  thy  strength  be. 
As  far  as  the  heavens  are  above  the  earth  so  far  are  thy 
thoughts  above  my  thoughts. 

Write  an  account  of  what  you  saw  on  your  way  to 
school. 

RULE    VII.       THE  INDEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

405.  The  indefinite  article  limits  nouns  in  the 
singular  number  only. 

RULE    VIII.      THE  DEFINITE  ARTICLE. 

406.  The  definite  article  limits  nouns  in  the 
singular  or  plural  numbers;  as,  "The  man:*' 
'•'the  men."  . 

1.  When  the  meaning  of  the  noun  requires  no 
limitation  the  article  is  omitted;  as,  "  Man  is 
mortal."     "  Honor  to  whom  honor  is  due." 

2.  Proper  and  abstract  nouns  are  definite  in 
themselves  and  do  not  require  the  article.  In 
some  peculiar  emphatic  expressions  the  article  is 
used  ;  as,  "  The  Douglass  and  the  Percy." 

S.  Before  certain  proper  nouns  which  are  pre* 
peded  by  adjectives  or  are  used  like  adjectives 
themselves  the  the  article  is  used ;  as,  "  The  great 


THE    ARTICLE. 


175 


Milton."     «  The  French  (people.)"     "  The  Andes 
(mountains.)" 

4.  When  proper  nouns  are  used  to  represent  a 
elass  the  article  is  used  ;  as,  "  lie  is  the  Cicero  of 
Lis  -age."     "  lie  is  not  a  "Washington;'1 

5.  The  article  is  sometimes  used  to  modify  the 

meaning  of  an  adjective   or  adverb  ;  as,  "  A  few 

men."     "A  hundred  men."     Compare  five  hundred 

men.       "  The   more."      «  The    Stronger."     "  The 

oftCner  I  sec  it,  the  better  I  like  it." 

0.  Before  UttU  and  fnc.  a  has  a  peculiar  force.  "  He 
has  a  little  reverence,"  means  he  lias  gome,  but  not  much. 
"  He  has  little  reverence,"  expresses  a  doubt  whether  he 
has  any.     "  He  needs  little  aid."     "He  needs  a  little  aid." 

7.  When  two  or  more  adjectives  modify  one  object  the 
article  is  placed  before  the  first  only;  as,  "A  red  and 
white  flag."     "  A  large  and  convenient  house." 

But  ifthey  modify  "different  objects  it  must  stand  before 
each ;  as  "  A  red  and  a  white  flag,"  that  is.  two  flags. 

8.  Where  each  adjective  is  to  be  made  emphatic  the 
article  is  repeated  •  as,  "The  learned,  the  eloquent,  the 
patriotic  Chatham." 

9.  Where  from  habit,  two  different  objects  are  associated 
together,  the  article  is  not  repeated  j  as,  "I  saw  a  man  and 
hoiW     "  The  father  and  mother  of  the  child." 

10.  There  is  a  great  nicety  in  the  proper  use  of  the  ar- 
ticle which  is  not  sufficiently  regarded. 

(1.)  It  is  sometimes  improperly  omitted  ;  as  "  He  will 
guide  you  into  all  truth,"  all  the  truth,  as  it  is  in  Christ. 
"  All  the  chief  priests  and  elders  of  the  people,"  the  elders. 
';  The  remembrance  of  the  dead  and  living,"  and  the  liv- 
ing. 

(2.)  It  is  sometimes  superfluous;  «s,  "  Even  Terah,  the 
father  of  Abram  and  the  father  of  Nachor,"  and  of  Nachor. 

(3.)  The  repetition  of  the  article  often  adds  force  and  dis- 
tinctness ;  as,  "  They  shall  fall  by  the  sword,  t>y  the  famine, 
and  by  the  pestilence"  "  They  would  still  maintain,  the 
virtue,  the  ielicity,  and  the  empire  of  the  Roman  people." 
"A  cool  head,  an  unfeeling  heart,  and  a  cowardly  disposi- 
tion prompted  him." 

Sec  farther  in  Harrison,  "On  the  English  Language." 


176  SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES. 

Man  was  made  to  mourn..  lie  was  elected  President. 
Darest  thou  then  to  beard  the  lion  in  his  den,  the  Douglass 
in  his  hall,  lie  will  never  become  a  Demosthenes.  A 
large  and  convenient  house.  A  larere  and  a  convenient 
house  are  not  always  united.  lie  possessed  the  various 
talents  of  the  soldier,  the  statesman,  and  the  scholar. 

TO    BE  CORRECTED. 

I  mean  not  the  doer  but  deed.  It  is  a  honor  to  be  here. 
She  lived  in  an  age  of  chivalry.  The  book  is  equally  fitted 
to  the  young  and  old.  Practise  the  patience  and  the  lorrj: 
suffering.  lie  claimed  the  title  of  a  gentleman.  A  lion 
is  generous,  a  fox  is  cunning.  The  silver  is  not  so  valua- 
ble as  the  gold.  lie  owned  a  small  and  largo  house. 
The  old  and  new  method  of  writing. 

EXERdSES    IN    COMPOSITION. 

•107.  Rule  15.  The  Semicolon^}  is  placed  between  the 
members  of  compound  scntcn-es,  unless  they  ewe  very  closely 
connected;  as,  ,:  Doubt  and  distraction  are  on  earth  ;  the 
brightness  of  truth  is  in  heaven." 

Punctuate'. — Lying  lips  are  an  abotnination  to  the  L<  rd 
but  they  that  deal  truly  are  his  delight.  "  The  gem  has 
lost  its  sparkle  scarce  a  vestige  of  its  brilliancy  remains." 

Speak  well  of  your  friend  of  your  enemy  neither  well 
nor  ill.  • 

Write  a  letter  to  some  friend  describing  your  last  visit. 

PiTJLE   IX.      PRONOUNS. 

408.  Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents 
in  gender,  number,  and  person. 

Their  case  depends  upcgi  the  construction  of  the 
sentence. 

1.  Pronouns,  referring- to  two  or  more  nouns 
taken  together,  must  be  plural ;  as,  u  George  and 
Thomas  excel  in  their  studies." 

2.  'When  the  nouns  are  of  different  persons  the 


PRONOUNS.  177 

pronoun  prefers  the  first  person  to  the  second,  and 
the  second  to  the  third  ;  as,  "  Thou,  he  and  J  ex- 
cel in  our  studies.  "  Thou  and  he  excel  in  your 
studies." 

3.  When  the  nouns  arc  taken  separately  the 
pronoun  is  singular;  as,  "Neither  James  nor 
John  was  diligent  in  his  studies."  If  one  of  the 
nouns  is  plural  the  pronoun  is  plural;  as,  "Neither 
the  captain  nor  sailors  were  aware  of  their  dan- 
ger." 

4.  If  the  noun  is  of  the  "common"  gender 
singular  number,  the  pronoun  is  made  masculine  ; 
as,  "Let  every  pupil  attend  to  his  studios." 

Expressions  like  this  are  also  found  ;  "  Let  every 
boy  or  girl  attend  to  his  or  her  studies."  The 
first  is  preferable. 

5.  Collective  nouns  when  signifying  plurality 
take  a  plural  pronoun  ;  when  signifying  unjty,  a 
singular;  as,  "Tift  court  'disagree  in  their  opin- 
ions."'   "  Every  nation  has  its  troubles." 

6.  The  same  form  of  the  pronoun  must  be  used 
throughout;  "I  sought  to  make  you  happy,  but 
thou  hast  brought  misery  upon  thyself,"  is  impro- 
per. 

7.  It  is  often    used   without   reference    to   the 

gender,  number,  or  person  of  its  antecedent: 

(1.)  For  the  plural.  It  was*the  heretics  who  first  be- 
gan to  rail. 

(2.)  For  the  masculine  or   feminine.     It  is  he.     It  is 

the. 

(3.)  For  the  first  or  second  person.    It  is  1.    It  is  thou. 

(4.)  For  a  phrase  or  sentence.*  "  It  is  impossible  to 
pleas*  all  men.'1     "  //  is  possible  that  it  may  be  so  " 

(5.)  As  the  subject  of  a  auipersonal  verb.  It  rains, 
It  hail- 


178  SYNTAX. 

(6.)  It  is  sometimes  used  indefinitely ;  as,  "  They 
lorded  it  over  the  land." 

8.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  in  apposi- 
tion for  the  sake  of  emphasis  ;  as,  "  I  myself."  "I  saw 
the  man  (himself.''1 

9.  Who  is  applied  to  persons  or  objects  personified. 
Which  to  animals  and  things.  It  was  formeily  applied  to 
persons  also]  as,  "  Our    Father,  which    art   in    Heaven." 

Which  as  an  interrogative  is  applied  to  persons  as  well  as 
things.  That  is  used  for  who  or  which,  especially  in  these 
cases  : 

(1.)  After  the  superlative  degree;  as,  "  The  wisest  man 
that  ever  lived  is  liable  to  error." 

(2.)  After  same,  very,  and  all ;  as,  "  The  same  man 
that  I  saw." 

(3.)  After  who,  to  prevent  a  repetition  ;  as,  "  Who  that 
has  the  spirit  of  a  man  would  permit  this." 

10.  The  relative  generally  follows  its  antecedent  and 
should  stand  as  near  it  as  possible ;  as,  "  lie  that  tries  to 
overreach  others  often  overreaches  himself,"  not  "  He 
often  overreaches  himself  that  tries  to  overreach  others." 

EXERCISES. 

He  who  overcomes  his  passions  conquers  his  greatest 
enemies.  Venerable  men  !  You  have  come  down  to  us 
from  a  former  generation.  It  was  neither  he  nor  his 
brother  that  brought  the  intelligence.  God  ended  his 
work  which  he  had  made.  Every  tree  is  known  by  its 
fruit.  It  is  a  brother  of  the  prince.  The  men  and  things 
that  he  saw.  You  and  Charles  and  I  must  attend  to  our 
business. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

Every  person  should  love  their  friend  and  do  good  to 
them.  No  person  should  boast  of  themselves.  Every  one 
must  judge  of  their  own  feelings.  The  nobility  usually 
have  some  title  conferred  upon  them.  He  is  the  same  man 
whom  I  saw.  Who  which  has  common  sense  can  think 
so.     The  army  whom  he  commands  is  well  disciplined. 

EXERCISE    IN    COMPOSITION. 

409.  Rule  16.  The  semicolon  is  used  between  great 
divisions  of  sentences,  even  though  closely  connected,  when 


THE   OBJECilVE   CASE.  179 

subdivisions  occur,  separated  hi/  the  comma;  as,«"  America, 
otherwise  called  the  New  World  was  discovered  in  1492  ; 
but  it  was  not  settled  till  some  years  afterwards/' 

Punctuate  : — The  Jews  ruin  themselves  at  their  Pass- 
over the  Moors  at  their  marriages  the  Christians  at  their 
lawsuits.  The  poisoned  valley  of  Java  is  twenty  miles  in 
length,  and  of  considerable  width  it  presents  a  desolate 
appearance  being  entirely  destitute  of  vegetation. 

Write  a  description  of  a  garden.  Point  out  the  differ- 
ent vegetables  it  contains  ;  the  manner  of  cultivating  them 
and  their  uses. 

RULE    X.       THE    DIRECT    OBJECT. 

410.  The  direct  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
is  put  in  the  objective  case;  as,  " James  reads 
his  book.'     "I  love  him." 

1.  Infinitives,  phrases,and  sentences  may  be  used 
as  the  object ;  as,  "  He  loves  to  study."  "He  saw 
how  few  returned."     "  I  hope  that  they  arc  safe." 

2.  Verbs  that  are  followed  by  a  clause  arc  those  that 
express  operations  of  the  mind  like  wish,  hopfi,feai*,  think. 
deserve,  suppose,  see,  hear,  feel,  say,  fell,  assert,  neport, 
ansiver,  respond. 

3.  Some  intransitive  verbs  govern  the  objective 
of  a  noun  of  kindred  signification  ;  as,  "  To  live  a 
life  of  virtue."  "To  die  the  death  of  the  right- 
eous." 

4.  In  a  few  idiomatic,  or  peculiar,  expressions, 
intransitive  verbs  arc  made  to  govern  an  objective 
case  ;  as,  "Look  danger  in  the  face."  "We  talked 
the  hours  away."  "The  trees  wept  odorous  gums" 
"They  laughed  him  to  scorn." 

5.  Some  causative  verbs  govern  the  objective, 
-which  are  otherwise  intransitive  ;  as,  "  Dance  the 
child."  "Trot  the  horse." 


180  SYNTAX. 

6.  Transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  without  the  aid 
of  a  preposition. 

7.  Some  verbs  naturally  intransitive,  whe^i  compounded 
with  prepositions,  govern  a  case  and  are  called  compound 
transitive  verbs;  as,  u  She  smiled  on  him."  "  He  laughed 
at  him."  The  preposition  is  retained  in  the  passive  ;  as, 
k'  lie  was  laughed  at."  "  He  was  much  thought  of"  ;  bet- 
ter say   "  He  was  much  esteemed." 

8.  The  Participials  govern  the  same  cases  as  their  verbs. 

EXERCISES. 

Disappointment  depresses  the  heart  of  man.  Foolish 
pursuits  delight  some  persons.  Evil  communications 
corrupt  good  manners.  Conversation  enriches  the  under- 
standing, but  solitude  is  the  school  of  genius.  He  is 
learning  to  write.  He  felt  that  it  was  too  late.  He  an- 
swered that  he  would  go.  Some  men  woujd  rather  sleep 
the  sleep  of  death  than  live  a  life  of  idleness.  Coursing 
in  its  pebbly  channel  the  brook  ran  nectar. 

TO    BE    CORRECTED. 

Who  did  they  send?  He  that  is  idle  reprove.  Lend 
to  me  your  book.  I  premise  with  a  few  remarks.  Will 
you  accept  of  my  gift.  He  I  must  punish.  He  shall  not 
want  for  anything.  They  grow  rice  and  cotton.  I  have 
to  return  the  book. 

EXERCISE   IX    COMPOSITION. 

411.  Rule  17.      Before  an    enumeration   of  jtfarticuliirs 

and  before  the  conjunction  introducing  an  examjjlc  the  semi- 
colon it  used  ;  as,  "There  aje  three  genders-;  Masculine, 
feminine,  and  neuter." 

Punctuate  : — There  are  three  cases  the  nominative  pos- 
sessive and  objective.  After  ah  !  oh  !  pronouns  oi  the 
first  person  are  generally  in  the  objective  case  as  Ah  me  ! 

Write  a  description  of  a  coin.  Point  out  its  shape,  its 
material,  the  inscriptions  upon  it,  its  uses  and  anything 
else  you  can  think  about  it. 


THE   DIRECT   AND   INDIRECT    OBJECTS.  181 

RULE    XI.      THE   DOUBLE    OBJECT. 

412.  Verbs  of  asking  and  teaching  are  fol- 
lowed by  two  objective  cases,  one  of  the  person, 
and  the  other  of  the  thing ;  as,  "  He  asked  him 
a  question." 

1.  Sentences  liko  "He  taught  him  Grammar," 
may  be  resolved  into  two  independent  sentences  ; 
as,   "  He  taught  him."     "  He  taught  Grammar." 

2.  When  they  are  changed  into  the  passive  voice, 
either  object  may  become  the  subject,  while  the 
other  remains  in  the  objective  ;  as,  "  Grammar 
was  taught  him,"  or  "  He  was  taught  Grammar." 
The  first  is  generally  preferred,  though  not  by  all. 

3.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  as  one  of  the 
objects ;  as,  "  I  asked  him  to. go."  "  He  was  asked' 
to  go  H  "He  taught  m£  to  write."  "I  wa3  taught 
to  write." 

RULE    XII.      THE    DIRECT    AND    INDIRECT    OBJECTS. 

413.  Verbs  of  giving,  granting,  allowing,  &c, 
are  followed  by  two  objects,  the  direct  and  indi- 
rect in  the  objective  case. 

Or  better.  Verbs  of giving \  granting,  allowing,  <fr., 
are,  followed  by  the  objective  of  the  direct  object  and  the 
dative  of  the  indirect,  as  "He  gave  me  a  book."  Book 
is  the  direct ;  me,  the  indirect. 

1.  The  verbs  that  take  this  form  of  modification  are 
allow :  bring,  buy ,  deny ,  gain,  get,  give,  obtain,  offer,  pay, 
prepare^  pjQcwre,  promise,  provide^  refuse^  sell,  send,  t<(t. 
yield. 

*J.  The  indirect  or  dative  object  comes  between  the  verb 

16 


182  SVXTAX. 

and  the  direct  object;  as,  "  He  sold  him  a  house."  If  it 
follows  the  direct  object,  it  becomes  an  adjunct;  as,  "  He 
sold  a  house  to  him."  This  distinguishes  it  from  all  other 
form:. 

3.  An  infinitive  or  clause  may  take  the  place  of  the  direct 
■r ;  as,  "  He  told  him  to  write."     "  He  told  him  that 

he  miihtgo."  , 

4.  The  passive  of  these  verbs  is  regularly  formed  by 
making  the  direct  object  the  subject,  while  the  indirect 
remains  in  the  objective  or  dative;  as,  "  A  book  was  given 
him." 

5.  Sometimes  the  indirect  object  is  made  the  subject ; 
asj  *'  I  was  promised  a  present/'  The  direct  object  then 
remains  obj ec ti ve . 

*       EXERCISES. 

I  asked  him  a  question.  Thomas  taught  his  brother 
arithmetic.  Grammar  was  taught  him  by  William.  They 
allowed  me  credit.  John  brought  her  a  chair.  William 
bought  his  father  a  farm.  A  present  was  given  me,  He 
promfeed  them  a  ride.     The  farmer  sold  me  a  horse. 

EXERCISES    IJST    COMPOSITION. 

414.  Rule  18.  A  Colon  (:)  is  placed  between  the  great 
divisions  of  sentences,  when  subdivisions  occur,  scjjarated  by 
the  semicolon ;  as,  "  I  admire  you,  my  friend;  I  love  you  : 
but  you  must  not  expect  me  to  make  this  sacrifice." 

.Punctuate  :-~-We  perceive  the  shadow  to  have  moved 
along  the  dial  but  did  not  see  it  moving  we  observe  that 
the  grass  has  grown  though  it  was  impossible  to  soe  it 
grow  so  the  advances  we  make  in  knowledge,  consisting 
only  of  minute  and  gradual  steps  are  perceivable  only  after 
intervals  of  time. 

Write  a  deso'iptlon  of  a  watch.  Point  out  its  parts  and 
their  uses;  thematerialsofwhich.it  is  made ;  the  tools 
employed  ;  and  any  thing  else  you  know  about  it. 

JiULE  XIII.  the  object  of  eefect  or  factitive  object 

415.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  rendering, 
and  constituting  are  followed  by  two  objectives, 
one  of  the  person,  and  the  other  of  the  effect  pro- 
duced ;  as,  "  They  made  him  a  judge," 


THE  FACTITIVE  OBJECT.  183 

1.  They  are  make,  appoint,  elect,  create,  constitute,  ren- 
der,  name,  style3  call,  esteem,  think,  consider rregard^  reckon^ 
and  sonie  others. 

2.  The  object  of  the  effect  is  now  called  the  factitive 
object  from  /actus  made.  Other'  names  have  been  given 
it,  but  this  is  the  simplest  and  must  expressive. 

3.  When  [  .say  t;  They  cho-c  him  President;  him  is  the 
direct  object,  and  President  iswli.tt    \e   kjecomes   by  the 
apt  of  choosing,  choosing  him  is  the  assertion   and  him  is» 
its  object.  ^ 

4.  The  difference  between  the  factitive  object  and  appo- 
sition is  well  shown  in  this  sentence,  "They  chose  Cicero, 
the  celebraf  '  oi  Ltor,  c  wisnl."  Here  consul  is  manifestly 
in  quite  a  different  relation  from  orator. 

5.  The  dative  object  is  the  person  interested  in  the 
action  expressed  by  the  verb;"  the  factitive  is  the  effect 
produced,  "  lie  gave  his  life  for  his  prii  "  For  his 
prince"  is  the  dative  object.  "  Me  gave  his  life  for  a  sacri- 
fice"    "  For  a              e  "  is  the  factitive. 

6.  In  the  passive  voice  the.    direct  object  becomes 
subject,  while  tl  e  factitive  takes  the  same  case  as  the  sub- 
ject j   as,  "  Jle  \  .  i  appointed,  die 

7.  The  factitive  relation  may  also  be  expressed  by  an 
adjective,  "The  news  made  us  glad;"  }  injtiveboth 
simple  and  supine,  ;>  He  made  him  )  ib<  ,  ap- 
pointed him  to  go;"  by  an  adjunct.  "They  c4iose  him 
for  a  general." 

£XERCISES\ 


Trie  consul  appointed  Titus  i>ianlius.  a  very  brave   man. 
dictator.      He  -makes  his  tent  n.  palace.     Tl  lied  him 

PeteV.     He  pain  led  l  he  house  red.     Tl;  it  him   as  an 

ambassador.  Thfey  took  him  prisoner.  He  smote  him 
dead.  Washington  was  chosen  president.  We  were  made 
to  rejoice  by  the  news  you  sent.  He  was  considered  »a 
hypocrite. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

4J.6.  Rule  19.     Every  complete  sentence  must  end  with  a 
period (.)  ;  as,  Honesty  is  the  best  pol 

When  Bent<  e  united  h-  dependence 

the  period  is  placed  alter  the  last  only.      I  •  •  :   "  The 


184  SYNTAX. 

sunshines."  "The  clouds  disappear,"  with  "The "sun 
shines  and  the  clouds  disappear."  "  The  man  is  happy, 
who  is  virtuous." 

Write  a  letter  to  any  frie-'.id  giving  an  account  of  your 
studies. 

RULE    XIV.       TIME,  DISTANCE,  WEIGHT,  &C. 

417.  Nouns  denoting  duration  of  time,  dis- 
tance, weight,  measure,  and  price,  are  put  in  the 
objective  case. 

1.  These  relations  follow  verbs  and  adjectives 
and  are  a  species  of  objective  modification. 

2.  The  objective  case  denotes  the  object  wThere 
the  motion  or  action  ends  ;  "He  strikes  the  tree." 
Tree  is  the  object  upon  which  the  action  terminates- 
"  He  walked  a  mile."  The  action  terminates  at 
iC  the  distance  of  a  mile." 

3.  Home  is  also  put  in  the  objective  case  after 
verbs  of  motion  ;  as,  "  He  has  gone  home."  "He 
ls  coming  home."  Home,  however,  is  considered 
by  many  an  adverb  in  such  cases. 

4.  \Vhen  any  particular  time  is  referred  to,  a 
preposition  is  commonly  used  ;  afe,  ".  He  arrive^  on 
Wednesday  last." 

EXERCISES. 

• 

Moses  dwelt  forty  years  in  the  land  of  Midian.  David 
reigned  seven  years  in  Hebron.  My  father  arrived  last 
Monday.  Jl«  will  return,  on  Thursday.  T  have  walked 
five  miles  this  morning.  The  tree  is  one  hundred  feet 
high.  The  house  is  twenty  feet  square.  This  field  con- 
tains ten  acres.  Wheat  is  worth  seven  shillings  a  bushel. 
It  cost  live  dollars. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

418.  A  period  must  be  placed  after  every  abbreviation: 
as,  Dr.  Geo.  F.  Johnson,  F.  11.  S.- 


LIKE,    UNLIKE,  AC.  185 

If  the  abbreviation  occurs  in  the  sentence  (not  at  the 
end)  the  period  does  not  take  the  place  of  other  points; 
as,  "My  clerk  put  the  letter  in  the  P.  0.;  there  can  be 
no  mistake." 

Punctuate: —  "A  description  of  this  scene  may  be 
found  in  Gibbon's  Hist  of  the  Dec  and  Fall  of  the  Rom 
Emp  Vol  I,  Chap  $ 

Write  a  description  ofact  piece  of  bread.  Tell  what  it  is 
made  of;  where  the  grain  grows;  how  it  is  cultivated; 
what  animals  and  tools  arc  used;  how  it  is  prepared  for 
mill;  how  it  is  made  into  flour;  how  into  bread. 

RULE   XV.      LIKE,   UNLIME,  &C. 

419.  The  words  like,  unlike,  near,  and  nigh, 
are  followed  ]by  the  objective  ease;  as,  "He  is 
like  his  father.  '  Or  better.  Like,  unlike,  near, 
and  nigh,  govern  the  dative. 

1.  Some  make  these  words  prepositions  governing  the 
objective  case;  others  understand  to  or  wito  after  them. 

2.  But  these  words  like  similar  words  in  other  languages 
govern  a  case  directly.  In  Saxon  like  and  unlike  governed 
the  dative  and  that  is  the  natural  power  of  these  words 
now.  # 

EXERCISES. 

James  is  like  his  father.  He  is  unlike  his  brotlier. 
The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf  on  the  fold.  Like 
me  he  is  anxious  to  go.     There  is  no. one  like  him  now. 

The  house  stands  near  the  old  oak  tree.     It  is  near  you. 

It  is  nigh  thee,  even  at  the  door. 

RULE   XVI.       ADVERBS. 

420.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and 
other  adverbs;  as,  " The  horse  ran  rapidly."  "It 
is  very  pretty."    "He  was  treated  most  kindly." 

1.  Adverbs  sometimes  modify  other  parts  of 
speech  beside  these;  also  phrases  and  adjuncts. 


186  SYNTAX. 

(1.-)  Prepositions.  "  Just  below  the  surface. "  He  sailed 
nearly  round  the  globe.  •  • 

(2).  Nouns.  "Blessed  be  God,  even the  'Fa'ther."  "Not 
in  word  only,  but  in  power."  "Tho  then  ministry. "  The 
last  should  not  be  imitated. 

(3).  Phrases.  "  I  lived  almost  in  vain.'*'  Which  is  so  at 
war  with  nature." 

(4.)  Adj  unct  3.   "  Independently  of  these  considerations.' ' 

2.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  ifsed  independently. 
This  is  especially  the  case  with,  yea,  yes,  no,  nay, 
amen.  They  are  equivalent  to  a  whole  sentence; 
as,  "Are  you*  going?  Yes;"  that  is,  UI  am 
going."  Properly  they  are  not  adverbs,  but 
affi  r  m  ative  and  n  eg  a  t  i  v  e  particles. 

.3.  Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  as  expletives 
.  without  any  special  modification  ;  as,  "  why,  I  had 
not  heard  it."     "  Indeed,  is  it  so?  " 

4.  There  is  used  as  an  introductory  word,  when 
the  subject  is  placed  after  the  verb;  as,  "  There 
was  a  man/'  It  has  then  no  modifying  power. 

5.  Adverks  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns;  as, 
"  Since  when  has  this  state  of  things  come  about  ?  " 
"Till  then."  "until  noiv." 

6.  Here  properly  means  in  this  place  ;  hither,  to 
this  place ;  hence,  Jrom  tfcis  place,  but  usage  now 
substitutes  here,  there,  where,  for  hither ,  thither, 
whither ;  and  places  from  before  hence,  thence. 
From,  however,  is  unnecessary. 

7.  Two  negatives  in  the  same  clause  are  equival- 
ent to  an  affirmation  ;  as,  "I  am  not  ?macquainted 
with  him."  Unless  intended  to  make  an  affirma- 
tion two  negatives  should  not  be  used. 

8.  Where  may  be  used  for  in  which,  only  in  re- 
ference to  a  place ;  "  The  spot  where  I  was  born;  " 
but  not  "  The  book  where  I  found  it,  "  but  "  In 
which  I  found  it." 


POSITION    OF   ADVERBS.  187 

POSITION  OF  ADVERBS.  . 

9.  Adverbs  should  stand  near  the  words  they 
modify  ;  as,  "  We  always  find  them  ready."  "  We 
find  them  always  ready." 

Here  always  is  correctly  placed  in  both  instances 
but  conveys  a  different  meaning  in  each. 

10.  They  generally  stand  before  adjectives, 
after  verbs  in  the  simple  tenses,  and  after  the  first 
auxiliary  in  the  compound  tenses ;  as,  "  He  is  very 
kind."  "He  spoke  kwdly'J'  "He  will  not  have 
gone." 

11.  Enough  is  placed  after  adjectives;  as,  "He 
is  not  tall  enough."  * 

12.  Never,  ever,  always,  and  seldom  generally 
precede  the  verb  in  the  simple  tenses; -as,  "He 
never  tells  the  truth." 

lo.  The  adverb  modifying  the  infinitive  must 
not  come*betwccn  the  sign  to  and  the  verbal  word. 

EXERCISES. 
The  stage  started  early.  Mary  writes  beautifully.  The 
wind  blows  fiercely.  We  easily  torget  our  own  misdeeds. 
The  ambitious  often  deceive  themselves.  Virtue  is  often 
Mcidected.  No  «nc  should  return  an  injury.  The  river 
flows  yonder. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 
We  alway*  should  prefer  happiness  to  pleasure.  I  never 
did  repent  of  doing  good  nor  shall  not  now.  Never  so 
little  labor  wearies  her.  The  bridge  will  be  never  com- 
pleted. This  construction  sounds  rather  harshly.  I  have 
near  finished  this  lesson,  lie  was  scarce  sensible  of  it. 
He  reads  the  paper  before  breakfast  always.  .  The  passage 
where  I  saw  the  word  has  escaped  me.  He  has  been  de- 
ceived certainly.  Marat  was  seen  to  gallantly  charge 
into  the  thickest  of  the  fight. 


188  SYNTAX. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

421.  Arrange  these  sentences  differently  without  chang- 
ing their  meaning. 

Example.,  "  London  is  the  largest  city  in  the  world." 
"  The  largest  city  in  the  world  is  London." 

The  night  was  dark.  Mournfully  the  wind  sighed 
among  the  branches.  The  Amazon  is  the  largest  river  m 
the  world.  At  last  the.  spring  has  come.  There  hangs 
the  picture  of  my  father.  Let  me  go  I  beseech  you. 
"Washington  is  buried  at  Mount  Vernon  on  the  banks  of 
the  Potomac.     Suddenly  a  shout  arose. 


RULE    XVII.       THE  RELATION  OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

422/  Prepositions  connect  words  and  show 
the  relation  between  them;  as,  "He  came  with 


me." 


1.  The  preposition  with  its  object  is  called  an 
adjunct. 

2.  It  shows/the  relation  between  its  objec  tand 
the^word  that  they  as   an  adjunct  modify. 

3.  The  preposition  stands  regularly  before  its 
object. 

4.  Two  prepositions  are  sometimes  used  before 
a  single  noun  for  the  sake  of  perspicuity ;  as,  "  They 
were  never  revealed  to,  nor  confronted  with,  the 
prisoner."  This  should  be  avoided  unless  requir- 
ed for  precision. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  a  transitive  verb 
and  preposition  ;  as,  "  And  may  readily  associate 
with,  and  promote  either." 

5.  Two  or  more  words  are  sometimes  combined 
as  a  compound  preposition ;  as,  "From  between  the 
arcades  the  eye  glances  up  to  a  bit  of  blue  sky." 

6.  Appropriate  prepositions  must  follow  certain 
words  ;  as,  "I  am  interested  in  the  book"  not  ivith. 


RELATION    OF    PREPOSITIONS.  189 

7.  A  list  of  the   words    and  prepositions  most 

liable  to  erroneous  use  is  given  below. 

Abhorrence  of.  Abound  in. 

Accuse  of.  Acquaint  with. 

Adapted  to.  Agree  with  a  person,  to  a  pro- 

Arrive  at,  in.  position  from  another,  upon 

Averse  to,  from.  it  among  ourselves.- 

Capacity  for.  Charge  with.    ■ 

Compare  with,  to'.  .     Connect  with. 

Copy  after  a  person*  from  a  Correspond  with. 

thing.  Reconcile  to  a  person,  with  a 

Reduce  under.  *  thing. 

Rely  on.  .     Die  of  a  disease,  by  an  instru- 

Differ  with  a  person,  from  a       ment. 

thing..  Different  from. 

Disappointed  of 'a   thing  not  Entrance  inti. 

obtained,  in   n,    thing    ob-  Expert  in,  at. 

fained.  FamiJiar  to  us,  with  a  thing. 

Followed  by.  Impatient  of  o,  introl,  at  delay, 

Influence  on,  over,  with.  for  something,  iindervrvobge. 

Interfere  with.  Profit  by. 

IVevide  with  a  thing,  for  a  Suitable  to,  for. 
person,  <?</<r«'/*s£ misfortunes.  Unite  to,  with. 

8.  In  denotes  a  place  where;  into,  entrance;  as,  "  He 
got  into  a  coach  and  rode  in  it." 

9.  At  is  used  before  the  names  of  houses,  villages,  and 
foreign  cities,  and  after  the  verbs  arrive,  touch,  and  land ; 
"■'He  boards  at  the  American  house."  "At  Greensboro." 
"At  Rome."  "He  touched  at  Liverpool  on  the  1st,  and 
arrived  at 'Norfolk  on  the  20  th." 

10.  Li  is  used  before  names  of  countries  and  large 
cities  not  foreign;  as,  ^In  North  Carolina."  "In  Mem- 
phis." 

11.  Between  relates  to  two  objects,  among  to  more  than 
two. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  CORRECTED  AND  PARSED. 

"Who  did  you  speak  to?  Whom  do  you  labor  for.  He 
walked  by  a  staff  with  moonlight.  He  has  a  capacity  in 
learning.  •  He  is  reconciled  witli  his  brother.  You  may 
safely  confide  on  him.  They  have  gone  in  the  garden. 
He  went  in   the  house.     This   is    different    to   that.    He 


190  SYNTAX. 

was  accused  for  betraying  his  master.  You  "have  do 
occasion  of  his  aid.  They  quarrelled  among  each  other. 
I  was  at  Philadelphia  last  year.  He  lives  at  New  Orleans. 
Ovid  was  banished  Home.  They  lived  sometime:  at  France. 
James  and  John  shared  it  among  them.  The  soldiers 
divided  it  between  them. 

EXERCISE  IX  COMPOSITION- 

423.  Arrange  these  sentences  differently  without  chang- 
ing the  meaning.  Examj)lc;  "  Cfesar  conquered  Pompey.  ' 
"Pompey  was  conquered  by  Caesar." 

The  Saxons  conquered  the  greater  part  of  Britain.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  embalmed  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  A 
virtuous  life  will  secure  the  respect  o.f  men.  The  Chinese 
used  the  magnetic  needle  Ion?;  a»o.  A  good  government 
will  enforce  the*. laws.  Patience  and  perseverance  will 
overcome  all  obstacles.  The  first  bank  was  established  by 
the  merchante  of  Venice.  Yascb  do  'Jama  discovered  tke 
passage  to  India  around  flic  cape  of  Good  Hope. 

KULE  XVIII.       OBJECTIVES  AFTER  PREPOSITIONS, 

424.  The  object  of  the  preposition  is*  put  in 
the  objective  case. 

1.  Prepositions  arc  not  always  necessarily  fol- 
lowed by  the  objective  case.  That  is  only  one  of 
their  uses. 

2.  They  form  a  part  of  compound  words  ;  as, 
orer-power,  undergo,  out-side. 

3.  They  may  be  joined  to  verbs  forming  com- 
pound fransitiv.es,  as,  "■  She  smiled  on  him,"  or 
be  added  to  them  like  adverbs  ;  as,  "  lie  has  gone 
away."     "He  is  coming "down."' 

4.  Transitive  verbs  governing  a  case  should  not  at  the 
same  time  be  followed  b}r  a  preposition  ;  a3,  "  This  allows 
of  no  trifling." 

5.  But  meaning  except  sometimes  takes  an  objective  j 
as,  "  All  but  him." 

In  some  writers  it  takes  the  nominative  ;  as,  Who    but 


CONJUNCTIONS.  191 

he,  "  There  is  none  other  but  he,"  but  heis.  This  is  the 
older  usage. 

0.  Than  after  comparatives  is  by  some  authorities  made 
to  govern  the  objective  ;  as,  "  Beelzebub  than  whom  none 
higher  sat." 

Others  use  the  more  rational  and  correct  form  than  w?w, 
is  t;  khan  who  sat,  none  sat  higher.'1 

EXERCISES.. 

We  arrived  at  Liverpool  on  the  1st  instant.     We  ought, 
to  profit  by  the  errors  of  others.     On  his  arrival  he  divid- 
e  '  his  property  between  his  two*Bons.     Dr.  Kane  penetrated 
far  into  the   Aretic  regions.     (Jo    into    the    carriage    and 
shut  the  door.     Hannibal  forced «his  way  into  Italy. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION, 

425.<c  Write  a  de&qp'ption  of  a  chair.  Point  out  its  parts; 
the  material  employed,  the  tools  used  in  making  it;  its 
different  forms»and  uses.  "Write  anything  you  know  of  ita 
history. 

RULE   XIX,      CONJUNCTIONS. 

426.  Conjunctions  connect  sentences  and  parts 
of  sentences;"  as,  "  The  sun  shines  and  the  clouds 
disappear/'  "William  and  Mary  are  a  happy 
pair."  • 

1.  When  conjunctions  connect  single  words  they 
must  he  of  the  same  class  and  in  the  same  con- 
struction ;  as,  "  Between  you  and  I."  should  be 
"between  you  and  me."  "Men  sincerely  loving 
their  fellow  creatures  and  who  hate  oppression," 
should  be  "£hd  hating  oppression." 

2.  .It  is  not  necessary  that  verbs  should  be  in  the 
same  mode  and  tense  ;  as,  "He  neither  receives  nor 
can  give  delight."  "There  mffi;  be  and  usually  is 
a%  ellipsis  of  the  verb."     Errors    are   matfe   by 


192  SYNTAX. 

undertaking  to  put  verbs  in  the  same  mode  and 
tense  according  to  Murray's  rule;  as,  "The alche- 
mists taught  that  bodies  were  composed  of  salt, 
stilphur,  an(J  mercury."  It  should  be  arc  compos- 
ed."  . 

3.  Than  after  a  comparative  degree  is  followed  by  a 
nominative  and  verb  expressed  or  understood;  as,  "  He  is 
taller  than  I,"  "than  I  am,"  "He  loves  him  more  than 
me, "'"more  than  he  loves  me."  The  case  of  the  word 
following  than  depends  upon  the  words  to  be  supplied;  as, 
"Caesar's  soldiers  were  bettej*  disciplined  than  Pompey's," 
"than  Pompey's  soldiers  were." 

4.  After  expressions  of  doubt,  fear  and  denial,  that,  and 
not  but  that  or  lest  should  be  used;  "I  do  not  doubt  that 
he  is  honest."  i 

5.  A  clause  should  not  be  united  with  two  antecedent 
clauses  unless  consistent  with  them;  as*,  "I  am  taller,  but 
not  so  heavy,  as  my  brother,"  should  be  "I  am  taller  than 
my  brother  is,  but  not  so  heavy." 

6.  After  yet,  though,  if,  and  as,  there  is  often  an  ellipsis 
of  some  word, phrase,  or  clause;  as,  "False  new  the  shaft, 
though  pointed  well,  "though,  it  was  pointed."  "He  was 
treated  as  a  son  "  (would  be  treated).  For  correlatives  see 
Section  304:2. 

EXERCISES. 

The  moon  and  stars  were  shining.     Neither  James  nor 

his  brother  has  come.  m    The  house  is  convenient,  but  the 

.garden   is  waste.     He  would    rather  go   than  stay.     Tnis 

book  is  better  than  that.     Stealing   always   has  been,  and 

always  will  be  considered  a  crime. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

We  saw  them  entering  the  gates  and  cover  the  square. 
Competition  is  excellent  and  the  vital  principal.  He  Was 
a  man  of  taste,  and  possessing  an  elevated  mind.  He  loved 
Andrew  and  I.  He  is  not  so  hospitable  as  her.  I  doubt 
^not  but  he  will  yet  appear  guilty.  I  possess  not  that  com- 
mand of  language  as  is  desirable.  He  conversed  with  such 
who  are  uncultivated.     It  was  such  like  this. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

427.  Write  an  account  of  the  different  uses  of  iron. 


THE  INFINITIVE.  *  193 

RULE    XX.      INTERJECTIONS  O  !  OH  !  AH  ! 

428.  The  interjections  o!  oh!  ah!  are  followed 
by  the  objective  case  of  the  first  person;  as,  "O 
me!"    "Ah  me!" 

Interjections  are  generally  followed  by  tiie 
vocative  of  the  second  person;  as,  "Oh  thou!" 
"0  virtue!" 

1.  The  first  expressions  are  to  be  regarded  as  cases  of 
ellipsis;  as,  Ah  pity  me!  Qr,  the  interjection  includes  a 
whole  proposition  in  itself  and  its  force  terminates  upon 
measa  porsonal  or  dative  object. 

2.  Those  of  the  second  person  are  naturally  vocatives. 

3.  "Woe  is  me."  is  equal  to  "  Woe  is  to  me"  "Well  is 
thee,  "—"is  to  thee." 

4.  "Me  miserable"  is  also  a  case  of  ellipsis.  "Alas  for 
me  miserable  one."  or  "It  is  miserable  to  me. " 

0!  or  oh!  is  frequently  used  as  expressive  of  wishing; 
as,  "Oh  that  I  had  wings  like  a  dove."  "I  wish  that  I  had 
wings  like  a  dove." 

RULE    XXI.       THE    INFINITIVE. 

429.  The  Infinitive  depends  upon  verbs,  nouns, 
and  adjectives ;  as,  "  He  studies  to  learn."  "  He 
has  time  to  go."     "  James  is  anxious  to  learn." 

RULE    XXII.       THE    INFINITIVE  WITHOUT  TO. 

430.  The  simple  infinitive  without  to,  is  used 
after  bid,  do,  feel,  have,  hear,  let,  make,  need, 
see,  may,  can,  will,  shall,  must. 

1.  The  infinitives  after  may,  can,  will,  shall,  and 
must,  are  commonly  regarded  as  forming  the  future 
and  potential  tenses.  These  verbs  require  the  in- 
finitive as  a  complement. 

IT 


194  SYNTAX. 

2.  The  origin  of  the  two  forms  of  the  infinitive  has  al- 
ready been  explained. 

The  infinitive  with  to,  or  the  supine,  and  the  verbal  noun 
have  nearly  taken  the  place  of  the  simple  infinitive. 

3.  The  rules  given  will  apply  only  when  the  infinitives 
modify  verbs,  nouns,  and  adjectives. 

4.  The  infinitives  are  properly  verbal  nouns.  They  differ 
from  the  noun  in  that  they  have  government  and  may  re- 
ceive the  modification  of  verbs. 

5.  Its  principal  uses  are;  first,  as  a  noun;  second, 
as  representing  a  contracted  'proposition. 

I.  As  a  noun. 

(1.)  As  the  subject;  as,  "  To  err  is  human."  Compare 
"  Error  is  human/' 

(2.)  As  the  predicate;  as.  '"'His  object  is  to  improve" 
i.  e.  improvement. 

(3.)  As  the  object;  as,  "  He  learns  to  read,"  i.  c.  reading. 

(4.)  As  the  second  object  (of  thing);  as,  "He  taught 
him  to  write." 

(5.)  As  the  direct  object  with  the  indirect  or  dative;  as, 
"  He  allowed  me  to  ride."  "Promised  him  to  go."  Also 
in  the  passive,  "I  was  allowed  to  ride." 

(6.)  As  the  factitive  object;  as,  "He  bid  him  go." 
'•They  let  us  depart." 

(7.)  As  a  subject  after  than  in  comparison;  as,  "To  give 
ia  better  than  to  receive  (is.) 

(8.)  As  in  apposition  with  a  noun;  as,  "  Spare  them  the 
task  to  read.  &e.'; 

(9.)  As  an  adjunct;  as,  "He  is  about  to  write,"  about 
writing." 

(10.)  A  few  verbs  are  followed  by  the  infinitive  used 
objectively,  which  is  equal  to  a  preposition  and  a  verbal 
noun;  as,  "Boys  delight  to  play."  "Boys  delight  in  play- 
ing." In  all  these  cases  the  rules  applying  to  nouns  should 
be  used. 

II.  The  infinitive  expresses  ^purpose  or  result,  sometimes 
manner  or  degree.  In  these  cases  it  represents  a  contracted 
proposition. 

Examples ;  —  "  lie  studies  to  learn" — that  he  may  learn. 
"He  stood  up  to  read" — that  he  might  read.  "He  is 
willing  to  suffer" — that  he  may  suffer.  "  He  is  liable  to 
be  robbed  "—that  he  may  be  robbed. 


THE   INFINITIVE.  195 

•(1.)  In  this  manner  it  modifies  adjectives;  as,  "He  is 
.eager  to  learn" — that  he  may  learn.  "He  was  ambitious 
to  mde  " — that  he  might  rule."  "  The  fruit  is  good  to  eat " — 
so  that  it  may  be  eaten. 

(2.)  It  modifies  nouns  in  a  similar  manner;  as,  "It  is 
time  to  study" — that  we  should  study.  "He  showed  an 
eagerness  to  learn" — that  he  might  learn. 

6.  The  infinitive  modifies  some  adverbs.  They  are  such 
as  imply  an  adjective  or  noun;  as,  "He  is  old  enough  to 
to  write  " — that  he  may  write.  Enough  is  equal  to  sufficient- 
ly. "He  does  not  know  how  to  writs" — in  ichat  manner  he 
may  write.  "He  does  better  than  to  write" — "than  he 
would  do  if  he  should  write." 

Here  there  is  an  ellipsis. 

7.  In  "He  seems  to  fast."  "He  appears  to  write"  we 
may  substitute  "  He  seems  or  appears  fasting  or  that  he 
fasts." 

8.  "He  was  seen  to  return"  is  equal  to  "  He  was  seen 
returning." 

9.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  as  an  attributive 
modifier;  as  "The  time  to  come,"  the  future  time.  "A 
book  to  be  desired,"  a  desirable  book. 

10.  "He  is  to  go.1'  He  is  to  write,  are  perhaps  cases  of 
the  insensible  extension  of  the  original  meaning  of  the 
infinitive. 

11.  "The  house  is  to  let"  may  be  explained  as  an 
ellipsis.  The  house  is  intended  that  it  may  be  let.  "  L 
have  a  house  to  let," — that  I  wish  to  let. 

12.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  absolutely,  as  "  To 
confess  the  truth  I  was  in  fault."  "  To  proceed  with  the 
story." 

13.  To  should  never  be  used  alone  for  the  infinitive  ;  as, 
"I  have  never  intrigued  for  office  and  I  never  intend  to." 
It  should  be  "  I  never  intend  to  do  so." 

EXERCISES. 

To  steal  is  sinful.  To  be  wise  is  to  be  happy.  It  is 
pleasant  to  see  the  sun.  I  hope  to  see  you.  Boys  love 
to  play.  I  heard  him  speak.  They  would  have  him  go. 
They  are  to  walk.  The  ship  is  to  sail.  This  is  a  work  to 
be  valued.  They  came  to  learn.  She  is  anxious  to 
succeed.  James  taught  John  to  write.  He  promised  him 
to  come.     They  appointed  him  to  go  as  commissioner. 


196  SYNTAX. 

TO    BE   CORRECTED. 

He  bids  me  to  come.  Hear  the  bell  to  ring.  He  walks 
&nd  I  wisli  to.  We  dare  not  to  go.  Instruct  him  to  care- 
fully observe  these  things.  Strive  to  seriously  impress 
them.     He  wished  him  to  then  be  their  King. 

EXERCISE    IN    COMPOSITION. 

431.  Write  an  account  of  the  uses  of  silver. 
.RULE  XXIII.    THE  INFINITIVE  AND  OBJECTIVE  CASE. 

432.  The  Infinitive  has  sometimes  a  subject 
in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "I  believe  him   to  be 

dishonest." 

1.  Certain  verbs  of  thinking  and  judging;  such 
as,  think,  judge,  hold,  consider,  regard,  admit,  believe, 
Jctioiv,  suppose,  suspect,  acknowledge,  declare,  warrant, 
are  followed  by  an  objective  case,  and  infinitive, 
standing  in  the  relation  of  subject  and   predicate. 

2.  These  are  a  species  of  contracted  propositions 
and  may  be  resolved  into  subordinate  propositions. 

v3.  They  are  either  in  the  contracted  or  expanded 
form,  the- object  of  the  verb  ;  and  the.  objective 
case  may  be  parsed  as  the  subject  of  the  infinitive. 

4.  The  objective  case  thus  used  as  the  subject  of 
the  infinitive  is  always  different  from  the  subject 
of  the  leading  verb,  both  in  the  contracted  and  ex- 
panded  form. 

Examples : — "  I  believe  the  sun  to  bethe  centre  of 
the  solar  system."  "I  know  him  to  be  a  man  of 
veracity,"  are  equal  to,  "  I  believe  the  sun  is  the 
centre  &c,"  "  I  know  that  he  is  a  man  of  veracity." 

exercises. 
I  judge  him  to  be  innocent.     I  know  him  to  be 

honest.     He  considered  the  horse  to  be  f afe.    They 


THE   VERBAL   NOUN.  197 

supposed  him  to  be  there.  He  acknowledged  him 
to  be  his  brother.  He  warranted  the  horse  to  be 
sound.     I  hold  it  to  be  certain. 

RULE  XXIV*.     participles. 
433.  Participles  refer  to  nouns  and  pronouns ; 
as,  "  James,  seated  at  the  table,  was    reading." 
"  He  stood  leaning  on  his  staff." 

1.  The  participle  may  also  refer  to  a -clause  or 
sentence;  as,  "JHe  was  detained  a  day  beyond  the 
time,  owing  to  the  bad  state  of  the  roads."  Here 
owing  refers  to  the  sentence  preceding. 

2.  The  participle  is  sometimes  used  absolutely  • 
as,  "  Generally  speaking,  his  conduct  was  honora-' 
■hie." 

3.  When  a  participle  is  compounded  witfi  un  it 
becomes  an  adjective  unless  the  verb  is  also  a  com- 
pound with  the  same;  as,   «  Cfohonored."     "  Un- 

sun  £. " 

4.  The  participle  expresses  the  idea  of  the  verb 
as  an  attribute  and  thus  modifies  nouns  like  an 
adjective;  «  The  rising  sun."     "  The  beaten  track/' 

«  RULE    XXV.      THE    VERBAL  NOUN*! 

434..  Verbal  nouns  in  mg  have  the  same  gov- 
ernment as  -the  verbs  from  which  they  are  deri- 
ved ;  as,  "  writing  letters  is  a  pleasant  employ- 
ment."    "  She  was  engaged  in  reading  Plato." 

1.  The  participle  in  ing  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  verbal  noun  in  ing.  The  latter  may  bo 
known  by  its  ability  to  form  the  subject  of  a  sen- 
tence. 


198  SYNTAX. 

It  formerly  ended  in  ung,  and  most  of  Ihe  verbal 
nouns  now  used  once  had  that  ending.  Some,  of 
later  origin,  are  formed  directly  from  verbs  by 
adding  ing. 

2.  The  compound  participle  is  sometimes  used 

as  a  verbal  noun;  as,  "Caesar's  Having  crossed  the 

Rubicon  spread  consternation  throughout  Rome." 

3  This  form  has  evidently  arisen  from  a  misconception 
of  the  true  character  of  the  verbal  noun,  and  is  either  a 
substitute  "for  it  or  an  unjustifiable  extension  of  it.  The 
sentence  quoted  would  naturally  read  "  Caesar's  crossing 
the  Rubicon,  &c." 

4.  The  compound  participle  active  when  used  as  a  verbal 
noun  also  governs  a  case;  as,  Cassar's  having  crossed  the 
Rubicon  &Q." 

5.  If  the  verbal  noun  is  preceded  by  the  it  must  in  most 
cases  be  followed  by  of  or  both  should  be  omitted  ;  as,  "By 
the  preaching  of  repentance,"  or  "By  preaching  repent- 
ance. 

EXERCISES. 

And  they,  continuing  daily  with  one  accord  in  the 
temple,  and  breaking  bread  from  house  to  house,  did  eat 
their  meat  with  gladness  and  singleness  of  heart,  praising 
God,  and  having  favor  with  all  the  people.  He  has  left 
town  for  Ireland  without  taking  leave  of  either  of  us.  He 
was  displeased  with  the  King's  having  bestowed  the  office 
upon  a  worthless  man. 

-  TO    BE  CORRECTED. 

By  observing  of  truth.  Without  the  taking  pains.  In 
tracing  of  his  history  we  find  little  that  is  worthy  of  imita- 
tion. The  Emperor  being  defeated  by  an  army  inferior  to 
his  own  occasioned  surprise. 

EXERCISE    IN    COMPOSITION. 

435.  Change  these  sentences  by  substituting  a  participial 
construction  for  the  verb,  and  the  contrary ;  as,  "He 
answered  and  said/'  "He  answering  said:" 

The  door  was  opened,  and  a  terrible  spectacle  presented 


THE    VOCAftVE    CASE.  1#9 

itself.  The  trumpet  vhaving  sounded,  the  combatants 
charged.  The  door  of  the  cage  was  left  open,  and  the  bird 
escaped.  The  battle  was  finished,  and  the  enemy  fell  back 
to  the  river. 

RULE    XXVI.       THE    NOMINATIVE    ABSOLUTE. 

436.  A  noun  or  pronoun  joined  with  a  parti- 
ciple and  having  no  dependence  upon  other  words 
is  put  in  the  nominatiye  case  absolute ;  as, 
u  Tarquinius  reigning,  Pythagoras  came  into 
Italy." 

1.  In  such  cases  the  noun  with  the  participle  is 
different  from  the  subject  of  the  principal  sentence. 

2.  This. form  of  expression  is  a  species  of  con- 
tracted propositions ;  as,  the  sentence  above  is 
equal  to,  "while  Tarquinius  was  reigning,  Pytha- 
goras came  into  Italy." 

3.  The  noun,  when  used  absolutely  with  the  participle 
was  put  in  the  dative,  in  Saxon.  Similar  forms  are  found 
in  older  English;  as,  in  Milton  "Him  destroyed  or  won 
&c"  and  Tillotson  "Him  only  excepted/'  Milton  also  uses 
the  nominative;  as,  "Whose  gray  top  shall  tremble  he 
descending." 

RULE    XXVII.      THE   VOCATIVE    CASE. 

437.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  ad- 
dressed is  put  in  the  vocative  \  as,  "  James,  lis- 
ten to  me." 

All  other  cases  in  which  the  noun  or  pronoun  is 
used  without  expressed  dependence  upon  other 
words  are  cases  of  ellipsis  or  omission  ;  as  in  the 
tftle  of  books,  chapters,  &c;  and  in  abrupt  poeti- 
cal expressions  ;  as,  "  Johnson's  works."  "  These 
are  Johnson's  works." 


200  SYNTAX. . 

«* 

.  RULE   XXVIII.      FUTURE  CONTINGENCY. 

458.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  to  express 
future  contingency  after  the  conjunctions^,  though, 
ivhether,  &c;  also,  after  lest  and  that  joined  to  a 
command  ;  and  that  denoting  a  wish. 

Examples  :- — "  Though  he  slay  mo,  yet  will  I  trust  in 
him."  "  Sin  no  more,  lest  a  worse  thing  come  upon  thee." 
"  See  that  thou  reform/'     "  Oh  !  that  I  were  at  home/' 

1  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  iirst  ease  only  when 
shall  may  be  placed  before  the  verb ;  as,  "  though  he  shall 
slay  me." 

2.  Present  usage  prefers  the  future  indicative  to  the 
subjective. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED  AND  PARSED. 
If  he  acquires  riches  they  will  corrupt  his  mind.  I 
shall  walk  in  the  fields  to  day  unless  it  rains.  Despise  not 
any  condition  lest  it  happens  to  be  your  own.  If  he  speak 
only  to  display  his  abilities  he  is  unworthy  of  attention. 
Was  he  ever  so  great  and  opulent,  this  conduct^would  de- 
base him. 

EXERCISE   IN    COMPOSITION. 

439.  Express  the  single  words,  and  words  in  italics,  by 
several,  so  as  to  convey  the  same  idea;  as,  "  A  sailor/' 
J1  One  who  spends  his  life  on  the  ocean/'  "The  moon  is 
shining"  "The  moon  is  shedding  her  light  abroad: " 
Heaven.  A  King.  Benevolence.  A  city.  •Arithmetic. 
Industry.  Night.  A  noun.  The  sky  is  cloudy.  The 
sun  has  set.  The  sea  is  rough.  James  was  working.  The 
farmer  was  sowing.     The  green  grass  is  springing. 

RULE    XXIX.      THE    USE    OF   THE   TENSES. 

440.  Those  tenses  only  should  be  employed, 
which  express  correctly  the  sense  intended. 

1.  The  perfect  participle  must  not  be  used  for 
the  past  indicative,  nor  the  past  tense  for  the  per- 
fect participle;  as,  "  I  done  it  in  great  haste,"  for 


THE    USE    OF    THE    TENSES.  201 

I  did;  she  come  for  she  came;  he  began  for  he  began; 
the  river  has  froze  over  for  has  frozen;  the  horse 
was  drove  hard  for  was  driven. 

2.  The  present  perfect  must  not  be  used  with 
modifiers  expressing  past  time;  as,  "I  have  fin- 
ished the  work  two  days  ago." 

3.  The  tenses  of  the  potential  should  correspond 
with  each  other,  not  "  Ye  will  not  come  unto  me 
tttat  ye  might  have  life,"  hut  "  Ye  would  not." 

4.  The  present  infinitive  is  used  with  verbs  sig- 
nifying  to   hope,  intend,  desire,  command,  promise; 

•and  alsc>to  express  an  action  or  state  not  prior  to 
the  time  of  the  leading  verb  :  as,  "  I  hoped  to  see 
you,"  "  I  had  resolved  to  remain*"  "He  is  said  to 
be  fifty  years  old."  If  the  action  or  stv.te  is  prior  to 
the  time  of  the  leading  verb,  the  perfect  should  be 
used ;  as,'  Galileo  is  thought  to  have  invented  the 
thermoneter. 

5.  The  verbs  sit  and  lie  must  not  be  confounded 
with  set  and  lay.  To  sit  means  to  rest  on  a  seat,  to 
eet  means  to  place.  We  sit  dowri.  but  set  things  , 
order.  There  is,  also,  an  intransitive  verb  to  set ', 
as,  u  The  sun  sets."  To  lie  means  to  recline;  to 
lay  means  to  place.  We  lie  duwn  ;  we  lay  a  thing 
down.  In  "  I  lay  down  yesterday,"  lay  is  the  past 
qf  lie. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED. 
They  desired  to  have  seen  you  respected.  I  expected 
to  have  seen  them  before  the  news  should  have  reached 
them,  but  urgent  duties  will  have  prevented.  I  beguw  to 
think  I  had  done  wrong.  His  children  have  all  forsook 
him.  The  bell  has  rang.  Robert  has  come  to  the  Bamc 
conclusion  last  week.  A  beggar  was  setting  by  the  way- 
side.    A  stone  was  laying  in  the  street.     Letussetdowr 


202  SYNTAX. 

He  set  up  and  begun  to  speak.  Sin  layeth  at  the.  door. 
If  he  wishes,  he  might  come.  He  was  slandering  me  be- 
hind my  back  but  he  never  will  again.  You  are  talking 
improperly  and  have  for  the  last  half  hour. 

EXERCISE  IN  COMPOSITION. 

441.  Write  a  description  of  the  uses  of  glass. 

GENERAL  EXERCISES    ON    THE   RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

442.  Examples  will  be  given  illustrating  the  use 
of  words,  which,  with  the  same  form,  have  differ- 
ent meanings. 

Calm  was  the  day  and  the  scene  delightful.  yVe  may 
expect  a  calm  after  a  storm.  To  prevent  a  quarrel  is  easier 
than  to  calm  anger.  .Better  is  a  Utile  with  content  than 
much  with  anxiety.  They  thought  little  of  him.  A  little 
attention  will  prevent  many  errors.  He  is  still  afraid, 
he  labored  to  still  the  tumult.  Still  waters  are  commonly 
the  deepest.' 

Damp  air  is  unwholesome.  'Guilt  casts  a  clamp  over  the 
sprightliest  hours. 

Though  she  is  rich  and  fair,  yet  she  is  not  amiable.  They 
are  yet  young. 

.  Momy  persons  are  better  than  we  think  they  are.     The 
fern  and  the  many  have  their  prepossessions. 

The  ha  'I  was  very  destructive.  Hail,  virtue !  thou 
source  of  every  good.     We  hail  you  as  friends.  • 

Have  you  seen  tke  horse  that  I  have  purchased  ?  Give 
me  that  book.     I  study,  that  I  may  improve. 

We  had  been  to  the  fair,  where  we  saw  a  fair  lady. 
Much  money  is  corrupting.  Think  much  and  speak  little. 
He  has  been  much  caressed.  His  years  are  more  than  hers, 
but  she  has  more  knowledge.  Behave  yourselves  like  men. 
We  are  too  apt  to  like  bad  company.  He  is  esteemed  both 
on  his  own  account  and  that  of  his  parents.  Both  of  them 
deserve  praise.  Both  houses  are  for  sale.  You  must 
cither  go  or  stay,  you  may  do  either.  You  ought  not  to  do 
aught  that  would  injure  your  friend. 

443.  In  these  sentences  a  variety  oi  peculiar 
constructions-  are  given.  Occasionally  ellipses  are 
supplied. 


GENERAL   EXERCISES.  203 

111  singing  \is  in  piping  you  excel. — Dryden,  I  live  as 
I  did,  I  think  as  I  did,  I  love  you  as  I  did. — Swift.  Darest 
thou  to  be  as  ^ood  as  thy  word  now  ?  He  answered  their 
questions  as  if  it  was  a  matter  that  needed  it. — Locke. 
u  As  he  would  ah  fe."  These  should  be  gently  treated  as 
though  we  expected  to  be  in  their  condition. — Sheirji.  "  As 
we  would  treat  them  though  or  if"  As/or  the  rest  of  those 
who  have  written  against  me,  they  deserve  not  the  least 
notice. — Dnjden.  A  bottle  swinging  at  each  side  as  hath 
been  said  or  sung. —  Cowper.  They  pretend  to  great- re- 
finement as  to  what  regards  Christianity. — Addison.  Let 
them  say  what  they  will,  she  will  do  what  she  lists.  What 
if  I  advance  an  invention  of  my  own  to  supply  the  detect 
of  our  new  writers? — Dryden.  Whatever  is  read,  differs- 
froinjsvhat  is  repeated. — Swift. 

I  was  adopted  heir  by  his  consent, 

Since  when  his  oath  is  broke. — Sheihspeare. 

What  is  that  to  us  ?  See  thou  to  that, 
I'll  know  your  businesss,  that  I  will. 
All  the  conspirators  save  only  he, 
Did  what  they  did  in  envy  of  great  Caesar. 

Shakspeare. 

Night  shades  the  groves,  and  all  in  silence  lie, 
All  save  the  mournful  Philomel  and  I. —  Youn;/. 

For  who  but  he  who  arched  the  skies, 
Could  raise  the  daisy's  purple  bud? 
He  that  is  washed  needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet. 

Bible. 

And  all  desisted;  all  save  him  alone. —  Wordsworth. 

The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck, 
Whence  all  but  .him  had  fled. — Hemans. 


204  PROSODY. 


PAET  FIFTH. 


PROSODY. 

CHAPTER  XXYI. 

.444.  Prosody  treats  of  accent,  quantity,  and  the 
laws  of  versification. 

1.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  laid  on  a  certain 
syllable  in  a  word  ;  as  ban  in  abandon. 

2.  The  Quantity  of  a  syllable  is  the  relative  time 
occupied  in  pronouncing  it. 

3.  Versification  is  a  measured  arraugement  of 
syllables  in  which  the  accent  is  made  to  recur  at 

certain  regular  intervals. 

4.  In  classical  languages -the  arrangement  of  syllables 
v-as  determined  by  quantity,  so  as  to  produce  a  regular 
succession  of  long  and  short  syllables. 

5.  In  English  and  most  of  the  modern  languages,  it  is 
determined  chiefly  by  accent. 

SECTION  I.     KINDS  OF  VERSE. 

345.  A  verse  consists  of  a  certain  number  of  ac- 
cented and  unaccented  syllables  arranged  accord- 
ing to  certain  rules.     It  is  frequently  called  a  line. 

4£Q.  There  are  two  kinds  of  verse  ;  rhyme,  and 
blank  verse. 

1.  Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound 

of  one  line  with  the  last  sound  of  another  ;  as, 

"  Thus  to  relieve  the  wretched  was  his  pride> 
And  even  his  failings  leaned  to  virtue's  side." 

GOLDSMITH, 


KINDS  OF   FEET.  205 

"  Lay  thy  bow  of  pearl  apart, 
And  they  silver  shining  quiver  ; 

Gi^e"  unto  the  flying  hart 

Time  to  breathe  how  short  soever" 

BEN   JONSON. 

2.  Blank  verse  is  verse  without  rhyme ;  as, 

"  The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained, 
It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  clew  from  heaven 
Upon  the  place  beneath;  it  is  twice  blessed, 
It  blesses  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takej." 

SIIAKSPEARE. 

It  generally  contains  ten  syllables. 

446.  A  stanza  consists  of  several  verses  or  lines, 
and  is  sometimes  improperly  called  a  verse. 

447.  A  couplet  consists  of  two  verses  which  make 
complete  sense. 

448.  A  foot  or  measure  is  a  division  of  a  verse. 
It  is  the  single  combination  of  accented  and  unac- 
cented syllables  whose  regular  succession  consti- 
tutes verse. 

449.  Scanning  is  dividing  a  verse  into  the  feet 
of  which  it  is  composed. 

SECTION  II.     KINDS  OF  FEET. 

450.  The  principal  feet  in  English  verse  are  the 
Iambus,  the  Trochee,  and  the  Anapaest. 

451.  The  lamias  consists  of  two  syllables ;  the 
first  unaccented,  and  the  recond  accented  ;  as, 
"  What  place  is  here." 

452.  The  Trochee  consists  of  two  syllables  ;  the 
first  accented,  the  second  unaccented  ;  as,  .Restless. 
mortals-toil  for-nought." 

453.  The  Anapaest  consists  of  three   syllables ; 
the  first  two  unaccented,  and  the  last  accented  ;  as 
I  would  A?tfe-with  the  W.^s-of  the  chase. 

!8 


206  PROSODY. 

454.  Verse  in  which  the  Iambus  prevails  is 
called  Iambic  verse;  that  in  which  the  Trochee 
prevails,  IrocJiaic  verse ;  that  in  which  the  Ana- 
paest prevails,  Anapaestic. 

In  what  follows  accented  syllables  will  be  marked  a, 
unaccented  x,  additional  syllables  + . 

455.  The  succession  of  syllables  in  the  Iambus 
is  x  a ;  in  the  Trochee  ax;  in  the  Anapaest  xxa. 

Besides  these  there  is  the  Dactyl  which  is  a  x  x  ; 
the  Spondee,  which  has  a  a,  and  some  others. 

SECTION  III.    IAMBIC  VERSE. 

456.  1st  form.  One  measure  or  foot.   Formula,  x 

a  +. 

Disdain-ing, 
Complain-ing, 
Consent-ing, 
Repent-ing. 

2.  Two  measures.    Formalaxa  x2orxa*2  + 

u  The  strains-decay 
And  melt-away." 
"  Upon-a  moun-tain, 
Beside-a  foun-tain." 

3.  Three  measures.     Formula,  x  a  x  3. 

"  In  pla-ces  far-or  near, 
Or  fa-mous  or-obscure." 
Or  x  a  x  3  +'.    "  Our  hearts-no  lon-ger  lan-guish." 

4.  Four  measures.    Formula,  x  a  x  4. 

"  On  on-he  bas-tened  and-be  drew 
My  gaze-of  won-der  as-be  flew." 

5.  Five  measures.    Formula,  x  a  x  5.    Heroic 

measure. 

"  How  loved-bow  val-ued  once-avails-tbe-not. 
To  wbom-relat-ed  or-by  whom -begot." 
This  is  one  of  the  most  common  forms  of  English 

verse.. 


KINDS   OF   VERSE.  207 

6.  Six  measures.     Formula,  x  a  x  6.     7 he  Alex- 
andrine. 

"  For  thou-art  but-of  dust-be  hum-blc  ancl-be  wise." 

7.  Seven  measures.     Formula,  x  a  x  7.     Service 

measure. 

"The  Lord-dcscend-cd  from-above,-and  bowed-thc  hcav-cns 
high." 

This  is  now  written  in  two  lines,  or  8  syllables 

and  7  s;  as, 

"  The  Lord-descend-ed  from-above, 
And  bowed-the  heav-ens  high." 

SECTION  IV.     TROCHAIC  VERSE. 

457.  1.  One  measure,  and  one  syllable.     For- 
mula a  x  + 

"  Tumult-cease, 
Sink  to-peace." 

2.  Two  measures.     Form,  a  x  *  2. 

"  On  the-niountain 
By  a- fountain." 

3.  Three  measures.     Form,  a  x  x  3. 

"  When  our-hcarts  are-mourning." 
Or  a  x  x  3  +    "  Restless-inortals-toil  for-naught." 

4.  Four  measures.     Form,  a  x  x  4. 

"  Round  us-roared  the-tempest-loudcr. 
Or  a  x  x  3  +     "  Idle  after-dinner-in  his- chair, 
Sat  a-farmer-ruddy-fat  and-fair." 

5.  Five  measures.     Form,  a  x  x  5. 
"All  that-walk  on-foot  or-ride  in-chariots." 

6.  Six  measures.     Form,  a  x  x  6. 

On  a-mountain-stretched  be-neath  a-hoary-willow. 

7.  Seven  measures.     Form,  a  x  x  7  + 

"  Here  a-bout    thc-beaeh    I-wandered-nourieh-ing  a  youth 

sub-lime, 
With  the-fairy-tales  of-acfence-aiid    the-long   re-sults   of- 

timc." 


208  PROSODY. 

SECTION  V.     ANAPAESTIC  VERSE. 

1.  One  measure.     Formula  z  z  a. 

"  In  a  3weet 
Resonance." 

2.  Two  measures.     Form,  z  z  a  *  2. 

In  my  rage-shall  be  seen, 
The  revenge-of  a  queen. 

Or  z  z  a  x  2  + 

11  He  is  gone-on  the  mount-am." 

3.  Three  measures.     Form,  z  z  a  x  3. 

0  ye  woods-spread  your  branch-es  apace. 

4.  Four  measures.    Form,  z  z  a  x  4. 

V  May  I  gov-ern  my  pas-sions  with  ab-solute  sway." 
Or  z  z  a  x  4  + 
"  On  the  warm-cheek  of  youth-smiles  and  ro-ses  are  blend- 
ing." 

458.  Common  metre  consists  of  four  lines,  the  first 
and  third  of  four  Iambics  z  a  *  4 ;  the  second, 
and  fourth  of  three  Iambics  x  a  x  3. 

459.  Long  metre  has  four  lines,  consisting  of  four 
Iambics  x  a  x  4, 

460.  Short  metre  consists  of  four  lines.  The  first, 
second,  and  fourth  of  three  Iambics  x  a  x  3.  The 
third  of  four  Iambics  x  a  x  4. 

461.  Hallelujah  metre  consists  of  eight  lines.  The 
first  four  contains  three  Iambics ;  the  last  four  two 
Iambics. 


FINIS 


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